This cannot be well expressed in Latin, but we have several such imperatives in English; in the passive voice, they are all such; as, Ποιησον. Γενου. Γράψον. Ο μεν λῃστης οὗτος ες τον Πύρια φλεγέθοντα εμβεβλήσθω. Have done. Finish the writing. Let this robber be cast into 82. Besides the past tenses common to other languages, the Greek aorists are of singular use and beauty. The primary use of these tenses is to denote the time past, generally; without alluding to any other point of time, past or present; and without specifying whether the circumstance was beginning, going on, or ending. These tenses, therefore, are peculiarly convenient for historians, and used by them accordingly; as, Ηλθον προς σε Ετυψα εκείνον. I came to you. 83. But there is a secondary, and very common use of the Greek aorists, which is, to express a thing as usual, or customary; as, Ολιγος χρονος τας των φαύλων A little time usually destroys the 84. Other tenses are, sometimes, used in this consuetudinal sense: as, Ον κε θεοις επιπειθηται μαλα τ' εκλυον αυτου. Ως δε λέων, εν βουσι θόρων, εξ αυ χενα αξεια Πορτιος η βοος. The gods particularly regard the person who obeys them. As a lion, springing among oxen, will break the neck of a heifer, or an ox. PARTICIPLES. 85. There is nothing in which the Greek language is more happy than in the use of participles. The Latin is very deficient, in this respect, having no present participle passive, nor a Thus also we say —a man shall have many good qualities, and yet be neglected. Some tense is used in this consuetudinal manner, in every language. The Celtic has a distinct inflection of the verb for this purpose; as, ca bhfuil tu? Where are you now? ca mbiann tu? Where are you usually? past participle active: but the English, although having few inflexions of the verb, approaches near to the expression of the Greek; thus, Αμφ' άλα ελσαι κτεινομενους. Τυψας. To drive the (Grecians) in, or, a killing around the shore. Having struck. 86. As in English, so in Greek, many verbs, particularly those signifying an affection of the mind, are followed by participles; as, Διετριβεν ερευνών. Θεον ου ληξω προστατην εχων. He continued searching. AUXILIARY VERBS. 87. The Greek language admits the use of several verbs, accompanied by the participles, or infinitives of other verbs, to express, most minutely, the time, and manner, of action, or existence. In which respect, it differs, entirely, from the genius of the Latin, but has been followed, in many instances, by the English. Thus, 88. To express a purpose of doing, or the proximity of an event, μew, with the infinitive, is used. When that event is to follow immediately, the present infinitive is employed; when, at an indefinite distance of time, the future; as, Ο τι μέλλεις λεγειν. Μελλει αρξειν. Whatever you are about to say. 89. The various modes of action, or existence, are expressed as follows, by auxiliaries and participles; viz. a From this use of the present participle, in English, it appears to be passive as well as active. In which, as in many other instances, the English follows, exactly, the ancient Celtic idiom; as, ta me in mo bhualadh, I am in my striking; i. e. in a state of being struck. The past participle, in English, appears to be transitive, in such expressions as this. The Latins say habebat persuasum sibi — habuisse suspectas — 90. To express the completion of an event, u is used, with a past participle. The present of, in such an expression, is equivalent to the pluperfect tense, but it is much more emphatical; while sooμal expresses the future perfect, in the indicative; as the subjunctives of the aorists do, in that mood; 91. Anticipated performance is expressed by plava, or πрoplava, with a participle. This expression is so energetic, that it cannot be literally rendered into any other language; as, Συντίθενται φθασαι τι δρασαντες η They conspired to do something παθειν. Ουκ αν φθανοις διηγούμενος. to avoid suffering. You cannot too quickly tell. Whoever has first conferred a kindness on his friend. 92. Secrecy, so as to escape not only the knowledge of another person, but even a person's own consciousness, is expressed by λavbarw, with a participle. As the Latin and English have no word corresponding to haveava, in this sense; the phrases, in which it occurs, are rendered adverbially; as, Ελαθον τινες ξενισαντες αγγελους. Λησουσι λεγοντες & μη δει. Some persons entertained angels unawares. They will be ignorantly saying what they ought not. 93. A variety of other circumstances are expressed, by join ing appropriate adjectives with Φανερος ην ἁμαρτανων. Ου πωποτ' εξαρνος εγενομην μαθων τι 94. Sometimes the indicative, of the participle; as, Δηλοι ωμεν, ότι ουκ ακοντες μαχαμεθα. and the like. us, and participles; as, We will do it secretly. I never denied that I had learned any thing: or infinitive, is used, instead Let us show that we fight willingly. But they cannot combine two participles; as, exwv Tapaĝas, having disturbed; which they render, quum turbassem - es- -et, &c. Ει παρείχεν, αδηλος εστι. It is not certain, if he furnished. You cannot deny that you are my son. 95. Strong regret or dissatisfaction at a past event, is expressed by the imperfect, or second aorist of openw, to awe; agreeing, in number, and person, with its subject; and, commonly followed by the infinitive. The particle Tε is frequently joined with οφείλω ; as, Μη οφελον νικαν. I ought not to have overcome. 96. Imperious duty, or necessity, is expressed by verbal adjectives in Tos; either agreeing with their substantives, or, which is more usual, having their agents in the dative, and governing their objects, as the verbs do, from which they are derived; as, Ο αγαθος μονος τιμητέος, Τινι την χαριν ιστέον; To whom is the favour to be acknowledged? Φευκτέον τῷ σωφρονουντι το προς The wise man must avoid mak δόξαν ζην. ing glory his object in life. IX. PREPOSITIONS. 97. There is nothing more necessary, in acquiring a knowledge of the Greek language, than to have a clear idea of the manner in which the various relations are expressed, by means of the prepositions. Two methods have been adopted, by philologists, to ascertain the meaning of the prepositions; but both very unsatisfactory. The first is by deriving each preposition from some word, either in Greek, or Hebrew, or Arabic, that seems to have a resemblance, in sound, and sense, to the meaning which they have already attached to the preposition. But it will be evident to any person, who thinks seriously upon the subject, that this derivation, a posteriori, will afford little instruction; when the deriver can know nothing, and may guess any thing. The second method is more unphilological still: That is by supposing the meaning of the preposition to change, according to the case to which it is prefixed. Nothing can be more certain, than that every word has only one original meaning; and, although it may be very difficult to analyze a phrase, so as to ascertain the meaning of each constituent part, when they are amalgamated; yet we are not rashly to pronounce that it is impossible, or to charge the noblest, and most accurate language, with a violation of the first principles of philology. A more philosophical and natural manner of acquiring a true understanding of the prepositions is, to follow the course of nature, in the formation of language; and, from considering what the primary relations are, to ascertain how they have been expressed. 98. The first manner, therefore, in which it is probable that relations were denoted, was by variety of termination, or different cases. Thus the genitive was used to denote that by which any thing was possessed, or from which it proceeded; the dative that to which any thing was acquired, from which it was taken, or by which it was done, and hence, interchange in general; while the accusative denoted the general object of action. But, as these cases express relations only in a general manner, it became necessary to specify them with more precision; hence præposita were used to denote the various modes of relation, each having its own distinct and unalterable meaning, but blending with the meaning already expressed by the case, to complete the idea intended to be expressed. 99. Every person knows, that the idea of one word governing another is merely an arbitrary invention of philology, and can have no foundation in nature. Hence the same preposition would be prefixed to different cases, without either changing its own meaning, or having any influence in requiring those particular cases. The use of the case must depend upon the nature of the subject, while the preposition is merely prefixed to give precision to the expression. 100. As the relations of place are the most obvious, it is probable that they were the first denoted by prepositions: and an attention to them, in their simplest form, will enable us to ascertain the primary meaning of the prepositions themselves. A very simple and easy manner of understanding them is, to conceive one body, in a state of rest, and then to consider, in how many different positions another body may be placed, with respect to it. viz. These may be reduced to the following twelve categories; |