imbibed before young men be entered into Natural Philosophy; because matter being a thing that all our senses are constantly conversant with, it is so apt to possess the mind, and exclude all other beings but itself, that prejudices grounded on such principles often leave no room for the admittance of spirits, or the allowing any such things as immaterial beings in the nature of things."

Present Method.] — In the present undertaking, it is proposed to submit a few considerations relative to Natural Philosophy-MedicineJurisprudence—and some parts of Moral Science or Philosophy. The arrangement may possibly appear novel; but any suggested emendations will be gratefully observed.

CHAP. I.

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

Definition.]—This has now become exceedingly ramified; and consequently the term is very comprehensive in its application. It must suffice, however, at present, to give a simple notice of the several particulars; accompanied, as usual, with references 1 to accredited sources of enlarged information.

Optics.] The science by which we investigate the properties of light and vision, is called Optics. Light is regarded as proceeding from the object to the eye, in three different ways: first, directly, or without any change in its course, and this is simple Optics; secondly, in a course which is bent or refracted, which is styled Dioptrics; and thirdly, in a path which, meeting with some other object, becomes reflected, and this is called Catoptrics.

Mirrors.] Of metallic mirrors we read in very early times. In Job xxxvii. 18, in the address of Elihu to his afflicted friend, he enquires

Hast thou with him spread out the heavens,
Polished as a molten mirror?

And in Exod. xxxviii. 8, mirrors of polished brass are supposed, by most of the critics 2, to be intended.

Mechanics.] — The science of Mechanics treats of the laws, the equilibrium, and motion of solid bodies; of the forces by which bodies

1 Millard's Pocket Cyclopædia, pp. 511–570; and Joyce's Introduction to the Arts and Sciences, pp. 171-284, may be read by young persons with great advantage. The Parts of the Encyclopædia Metropolitana, already published, comprise well written dissertations on most of these topics; but must be read by the more advanced student and philosopher.

2 Though Luther, and some few after him, translate the passage, "He made the hand-bason of brass, and its stand also of brass, in the presence of the women who served before the door of the tabernacle ; yet they have been censured for this, since the Sept., the Vulg., the Eng. and Dutch Bibles, agree in translating bemerath, n," of the mirrors," made, say many of the Commentators, of polished brass.-Encyclop. Metrop. part v. on Optics, p. 393.

may be made to act upon one another; and of the means by which these may be increased.

Properties.]—The essential properties of matter are, solidity, divisibility, mobility, and inertia, or a state of inaction. On the creation of the world (Gen. i.), our best philosophers 1 have dilated in the most satisfactory manner.

Hydraulics.]

By Hydraulics is meant that science which teaches us how to estimate the velocity and force of fluids in motion; and the means of raising them in pumps, &c.

Watering Machine.]—Deut. xi. 10, may here be illustrated, as the custom of watering the land by an hydraulic machine is still practised in Eastern countries.

Electricity.] The earth and all bodies with which we are acquainted, are supposed to contain a certain quantity of a fluid or fluids, called the electric fluid. Hence, Electricity is that power which certain bodies possess, when excited by friction, of attracting light substances.

Lightning.] cally true. 3

The words in Ps, cxxxv. 7, are strictly and philosophiDoes not the lightning, by discharging the fluid from an electrical cloud, suffer its waters to coalesce, and so occasion rain ?

Chemistry.] Whatever may be the origin of the term Chemistry (whether Egyptian or Arabic 5), it has now an extensive meaning. The object of this most interesting science is, to investigate the effects of the action of bodies upon each other, and to determine their constituent principles. 6

Sir I. Newton is of opinion, that God, in the beginning, formed matter into solid, massy, impenetrable moveable particles or atoms, of such sizes and figures, and with such other properties, and in such proportion to space, as most conduced to the end for which he formed them.-See more in Millard's Cyclopædia, p. 511, 512.

2 Niebuhr's representation of the Egyptian sakhistotir beridsjel, or hydraulic machine worked by the feet (which he supposes to be similar to that of the Hebrews), has already been noticed, supra, vol. ii. p. 152.

3 See supra, vol. ii. p. 28, and Dr. A. Clarke on Job xxxvi.

The very term Chemistry, Chemia, xnua, signifies the Egyptian art. The country itself was named Chemia and Chamia, or the land of Cham on. Another sense of Chemia and Al Chemia is, a process by fire. Bryant's Anal. of Mythol. iv. p. 384.

5 According to Millard, p. 555, who also says, that Alchemy took its rise among the Arabians about the commencement of the fourth century. The Greeks named the science from the country in which they had first heard of its existence. Egypt is frequently denominated by the Hebrew writers, the land of Cham; and Chami or Chemi, was the name by which it was most generally known to the Copts themselves.-See Wilkins' Coptic Pentateuch.--That chemistry must have been cultivated as a science in Egypt from a very remote antiquity, may be collected from the Sacred Scriptures. - Drummond on the Sciences of the Egypt. and Chald. in Class. Jour. xviii. p. 300, 301.

6 The Chemical Catechism, with Tables, Notes, Illustrations, and Experiments, by Samuel Parkes, 8vo. pp. 588. the 10th edit. 1822, has been already mentioned with high respect and obligation.

to mark the distinction between fluctuating, contingent causes(causes, whose efficiency is derived from laws or powers beyond themselves), and the true, absolute, and unvarying principles of causation." He regarded the enquiries of physical philosophers in general, as terminating in comparatively unimportant results, and the causes assigned by them to the objects of their research, as involving others far above them. There was still to be sought a cause, why they were causes, and to which alone the true notion of causality could attach.

Aristotle.] Reviewing, therefore, the systems of other philosophers, and the insufficiency of their principles to account for the existence and order of created things; by the aid of this science, Aristotle 1 arrived at the notion of a Divine Originator, and led the minds of his readers up to the sublime source of power, wisdom, and benevolence. The doctrine of Metaphysics, therefore, according to him, was that which treated of unchangeable principles of causation - principles which, in their very nature, are immutable, as distinguished from such as are dependent, and liable to fluctuation. Of this philosophy, the invaluable fruit was, to lead from the mere relations and mutual dependencies of matter, to the operations of mind; from things that are made, to the Almighty Maker.

Physics.] According to this distinction, the doctrine of Physics is more immediately subservient to the arts and embellishments of life; but that of Metaphysics to the cultivation of mind, and the development of the moral principles of human nature. The former is conversant with particular facts, and limited to the specific order observed in them, without reference to the intellectual and moral sources which they involve; the latter, with those general and essential principles from which these facts derived their origin, as well as with those which necessarily arise from them. Physics direct to the use of material substances, as such, in secular life; Metaphysics, as far as it applies to them, to the intellectual and moral inferences deduced from their general nature, for the improvement of rational and spiritual life. 2

Scripture Allusions.]-The writers of Holy Scripture sometimes employ the metaphysical method of reasoning from established maxims. When they assume a general position, and apply it to particular cases

See an abundant and most gratifying representation of that celebrated philosopher, with all his productions and peculiarities, in Enfield's History of Philosophy, vol. i. pp. 259–292.

2 An investigation and arrangement, for instance, of the facts which occur in chemical analysis, is a part of Physics, but a consideration of them as necessarily dependent on a designing cause, and the exertion of conservating power, is a branch of Metaphysics. The natural theology of Paley, though written rather in a popular and eloquent, than a close, philosophical style, belongs to the department of metaphysical reasoning. It is, in all its parts, founded immediately upon general axioms, though those axioms are rather implied than expressed. Appendix to Mr. Gilbert's Memoir of Dr. Williams, pp. 545, 546.

by way of inference, the argument, however simple, is of that kind. The proposition, for instance, that a being cannot act otherwise than according to its nature, is briefly expressed by, God cannot deny himself, 2 Tim. ii. 13; and from this, other truths are deduced which have a particular bearing. Things which are the contrast of each other cannot assimilate together, expressed figuratively by 2 Cor. vi. 14; an axiom, from which important practical instructions are drawn. Omnipotence cannot effect contradictions, is implied in Tit. i. 2. He cannot transmute falsehood into truth - cannot, by any volition, make evil good, or good evil-cannot change his own nature. The same cause cannot produce opposite effects, is contained in the words of James, iii. 12. The force of temptation arises from the defect of the agent who is tempted, James i. 13, 14. Moral evil cannot originate from the agency of an infinitely Holy Being. The Apostle argues from the Divine Nature, that as God "cannot be tempted," so neither can he "tempt." Not only positive, but negative principles, are also recognised in Scripture, as causes, in a metaphysical sense; that is, in the sense of principles which give rise to certain results, as much as direct physical causes do to positive effects. Causality is to be understood when employed in such connections, in the most general meaning of the term, not in the manner of active efficiency. It is capable of being applied to principles of truth and falsehood, as well as to agency in the production of events- to defect as well as to effect. In this sense must be understood the expressions of Eph. iv. 18, Alienated, &c.; Acts iii. 17, Through ignorance, &c.; 1 John ii. 11, Darkness hath blinded, &c. This ignorance, however, was a crime: it arose from the insensibility of the heart. Other general principles are immediately deducible from the Divine word; as, blessings received in time, are the result of a divine purpose from eternity, 2 Tim. i. 9, 10. But it is not necessary to enumerate instances; they will often occur to the attentive reader, and will be found susceptible of extensive application.

Definition.] Moral Science has been defined 1 a certain and exact knowledge of virtue and vice, whence they spring, and whither they respectively tend, as to their ultimate results. It makes us acquainted, therefore, doctrinally, with good and evil, happiness and misery, God and ourselves: not in the way of doubtful conjecture, but by the clear light of indubitable principles and infallible conclusions.

Present State.]—A comparison of this definition, with the current ones of the day, leads us to see the little progress of this science; moral writers have, hitherto, spoken but little of virtue and vice.

By the late Dr. Edward Williams, in a MS. for which the present writer was indebted to the kindness of his learned and excellent tutor, during his academical connection with him. This faithful transcript from the Doctor's papers, he most highly appreciates.

between absolute perfection and the want of it, as to self-existence, independence, and all-sufficiency.

DEFINITION 21.

A Divine decree is the purpose of God, respecting what he will effect.

Axioms.] — A selection only can now be allowed, of the Axioms in moral science. An Axiom, be it remembered, is that, the denial of which is reducible to a self-contradiction.

AXIOM 1.

There is a First Cause, whose existence is absolute, possessed of all possible perfections.

AXIOM 2.

All good is ultimately from the First Cause, which we call God.

AXIOM 4.

All moral and metaphysical evils are from the creatures exclusively.

AXIOM 10.

In every created moral agent, freedom and the cause of defectibility are found co-existent.

AXIOM 18.

Whatever tendencies result from the nature of God, and from the nature of a created existence, may be said to flow from the nature of things.

AXIOM 19.1

A dissatisfaction with our nature, as possessing the cause of defectibility, is of the essence of rebellion.

[The SCIENCES to be concluded in our next.]

English Etymologies.

ESPECIALLY INTERESTING AND USEFUL TO THE BIBLICAL STUDENT.

[Continued from p. 212.]

GOSPEL, is the Anglo-Saxon GODSPEL, compounded of GOD, good, and SPEL, history, narrative, doctrine, mystery, or secret; and was applied by our ancestors to signify the revelation of that glorious system of truth, which had been in a great measure hidden or kept secret from the foundation of the world.Among Saxon scholars, however, the word Gospel has been variously explained. Mr. Somner, who writes it godspell, explains it by Sermo Dei mysticus;

The Axioms in my manuscript, are nineteen in number, and the definitions of terms and principles are twenty-four. These few are selected merely as a specimen; and their evident consonancy with Scripture truth, must supersede any necessity for their recommendation.