1 The ancient Romans had only openings in the walls to admit the light, FENESTRE, windows (from paiya, ostendo ; hence oculi et aures sunt quasi fenestræ animi,) covered with two folding leaves of wood, and sometimes a curtain, hence said to be joined, when shut, cubiculum ne diem quidem sentit, nisi apertis fenestris, sometimes covered with a net,3 occasionally shaded by curtains.6 Under the first emperors, windows were contrived of a certain transparent stone, called LAPIS SPECULARIS, found first in Spain, and afterwards in Cyprus, Cappadocia, Sicily, and Africa, which might be split into thin leaves like slate, but not above five feet long each. What this stone was is uncertain. Windows, however, of that kind (SPECULARIA) were used only in the principal apartments of great houses, in gardens, called PERSPICUA GEMMA, in porticos, in sedans, or the like. Paper, linen cloth, and horn, seem likewise to have been used for windows; hence CORNEUM SPECULAR. 11 10 The Romans did not use glass for windows, although they used it for other purposes, particularly for mirrors (specula), nor is it yet universally used in Italy, on account of the heat. Glass was first invented in Phoenicia accidentally, by mariners burning nitre on the sand of the sea-shore.12 Glass windows (vitrea specularia) are not mentioned till about the middle of the fourth century by Hieronymus (St Jerome),13 first used in England, A. D. 1177; first made there, 1558; but plate glass for coaches and looking glasses not till 1673. The Romans, in later times, adorned the pavements of their houses with small pieces of marble, of different colours, curiously joined together, called PAVIMENTA SECTilia, vel EmbleMATA VERMICULATA, or with small pebbles, (calculi vel tesseræ, s. -ule), dyed in various colours; hence called PAVIMENTA TESSEL LATA, ,15 used likewise, and most frequently, in ceilings,16 in aftertimes called opus museum vel musivum, mosaic work, probably because first used in caves or grottos consecrated to the muses (musea). The walls also used to be covered with crusts of marble.17 ivory, and fretted or LAQUEARIA Vel LACUNA Ceilings were often adorned with formed into raised work and hollows. 18 RIA, from lacus or lacuna, the hollow interstice between the beans, 19 gilt 20 and painted. Nero made the ceiling of his dining room to shift, and exhibit new appearances, as the different courses or dishes were removed.1 VILLAS AND GARDENS OF THE ROMANS. THE magnificence of the Romans was chiefly conspicuous in their country villas.2 VILLA Originally denoted a farm-house and its appurtenances, or the accommodations requisite for a husbandman; 3 hence the overseer of a farm was called VILLICUS, and his wife VILLICA. But when luxury was introduced, the name of villa was applied 4 will be found in the museum at 2 Cic. Legg. iii. 13. beauty of the workmanship and the whimsical variety of their designs. But beautiful as these lamps are, the light which they gave must have been weak and unsteady, and little superior te that of common street lamps, with which indeed they are identical in principle. The wick was merely a few twisted threads drawn through a hole in the upper surface of the oil-vessel; and there was no glass to steady the light and prevent its varying with every breeze that blew. Three of different shapes, are represented above. de vehebant, cum ven- 4 uxor liberi, et contuderentur Var. R. R. bernalis servi. i. 2. 14. to a number of buildings reared for accommodating the family of an opulent Roman citizen in the country; hence some of them are said to have been built in the manner of cities.2 A villa of this kind was divided into three parts, URBANA, RUSTICA, and FRUCTUARIA. The first contained dining-rooms, parlours, bed-chambers, baths, tennis-courts, walks, terraces,3 &c., adapted to the different seasons of the year. The villa rustica contained accommodations for the various tribes of slaves and workmen, stables, &c., and the fructuaria, wine and oilcellars, corn-yards, barns, granaries, storehouses, repositories for preserving fruits, &c. Cato and Varro include both the last parts under the name of VILLA RUSTICA. But the name of villa is often applied to the first alone, without the other two, and called by Vitruvius PSEUDO-URBANA; by others PRÆTORIUM.6 7 In every villa there commonly was a tower; in the upper part of which was a supping-room, where the guests, while reclining at table, might enjoy at the same time a pleasant prospect. 8 Adjoining to the VILLA RUSTICA, were places for keeping hens, GALLINARIUM; geese, CHENOBOSCIUM; ducks and wild fowl, NESSOTROPHIUM; birds, ornithon vel AVIARIUM; dormice, GLIRARIUM ; swine, SUILE, &c. stabulum, et hara, hogsties; hares, rabbits, &C., LEPORARIUM, a warren; bees, APIARIUM; and even snails, COCHLEARE, &c. 10 There was a large park, of fifty acres or more, for deer and wild beasts, THERIOTROPHIUM vel VIVARIUM, but the last word is applied also to a fish-pond (PISCINA), or an oyster-bed, or any place where live animals were kept for pleasure or profit: hence in vivaria mittere, i. e. lactare, muneribus et observantia omni alicujus hæreditatem captare, to court one for his money; ad vivaria currunt, to good quarters, to a place where plenty of spoil is to be had.“ The Romans were uncommonly fond of gardens (HORTUS vel ORTUS),12 as, indeed, all the ancients were; hence the fabulous gardens and golden apples of the HESPERIDES, of Adonis and Alcinous, the hanging gardens 1 of Semiramis, or of Cyrus at Babylon, the gardens of Epicurus, put for his gymnasium, or school. In the laws of the Twelve Tables villa is not mentioned, but hortus in place of it.15 The husbandmen called a garden altera succidia, a second dessert, or flitch of bacon,16 which was 1 Cic. Rosc. Com. 12. 3 xysti. 4 fenilia et palearia. 6 Cat. R. R. iii. 1. ix. 1. Var. xiii. 6. Pallad. 1. 8. Suet. Aug. 72. 8 Plin. Ep. ii. 17. 12 ubi arbores et olera oriuntur. 13 Virg. En. iv. 484. G. 1 always ready to be cut, or a sallad, and judged there must be a bad housewife (nequam mater familias, for this was her charge) in that house where the garden was in bad order.3 Even in the city, the common people used to have representations of gardens in their windows. In ancient times, the garden was chiefly stored with fruittrees and pot-herbs, hence called HORTUS PINGUIS, the kitchengarden, and noble families were denominated not only from the cultivation of certain kinds of pulse (legumina), Fabii, Lentuli, Pisones, &c., but also of lettuce, Lactucini. But in after-times the chief attention was paid to the rearing of shady trees,' aromatic plants, flowers, and evergreens; as the myrtle, ivy, laurel, boxwood, &c. These, for the sake of ornament, were twisted and cut into various figures by slaves trained for that purpose, called TOPIARII, who were said TOPIARIAM, SC. artem FACERE, vel OPUS TOPIARIUM.8 Gardens were adorned with the most beautiful statues. Here the Romans, when they chose it, lived in retirement, and entertained their friends." The Romans were particularly careful to have their gardens well watered (rigui vel irrigui); and for that purpose, if there was no water in the ground, it was conveyed in pipes.i 10 These aqueducts (ductus aquarum) were sometimes so large, that they went by the name of NILI and EURIPI." 12 The gardens at Rome most frequently mentioned by the classics, were, horti CESARIS; LUCULLI; MARTIALIS; NERONIS; POMPEII: SALUSTII, V. -IANI, the property first of Sallust the historian, then of his grand-nephew and adopted son, afterwards of the emperor's; SENECE; TARQUINII SUPERBI, the most ancient in the city 13 Adjoining to the garden were beautiful walks (ambulacra, vel -tiones), shaded with trees, and a place for exercise (palestra). Trees were often reared with great care round houses in the city, and statues placed among them.1 AGRICULTURE OF THE ROMANS. THE ancient Romans were so devoted to agriculture, that their most illustrious commanders were sometimes called from the plough; thus, Cincinnatus. The senators commonly resided in the country, and cultivated the ground with their own hands," 1 Cic. Sen. 16. 3 indiligens hortus, i. e. 5 ex horto enim plebei 6 Plin. xix. 4. s. 19. 3. Ep..17.Virg.G.iv.118. 7 Hor. Od. i. 14. 22. nales, vel fistulas 11 Cic. Legg. ii. 1. 1.37 xiv. 3. xv. 44. 13 Tac. Ann. iii. 30. xiii. 47. Hist. iii. 82. xiv. 52. Juv. x. 16, Liv. i. 54. Ov. Fast. ii. 703. 14 Cic. Legg. ii. 2. Ver. i. 19. Gell. i. 2. Hor. Ep. i. 10. 22. Tibul. iii. 3. 15. 15 Liv. iii. 26. Cic. Ros. Am. 18. see p. 6, 7. and the noblest families derived their surnames from cultivating particular kinds of grain; as the FABII, PISONES, LENTULI, CICERONES, &c. To be a good husbandman was accounted the highest praise (BONUS COLONUS vel AGRICOLA, was equivalent to VIR BONUS; LOCUPLES, rich, q. loci, hoc est, agri plenus: PECUNIOSUS, a pecorum copia; so ASSIDUUS, ab asse dando); and whoever neglected his ground, or cultivated it improperly, was liable to the animadversions of the censors.1 At first no citizen had more ground than he could cultivate himself. Romulus allotted to each only two acres, called HAREDIUM (quod hæredem sequerentur), and soRs, or cespes fortuitus,2 which must have been cultivated with the spade. A hundred of these sortes or heredia was called CENTUARIA; hence in nullam sortem bonorum natus, i. e. partem hæreditatis, to no share of his grandfather's fortune. After the expulsion of the kings, seven acres were granted to each citizen, which continued for a long time to be the usual portion assigned them in the division of conquered lands. L. Quinctius Cincinnatus, Curius Dentatus, Fabricius, Regulus, &c. had no more. Cincinnatus had only four acres according to Columella and Pliny.* Those whom proprietors employed to take care of those grounds which they kept in their own hands, were called VILLICI, and were usually of servile condition. Those who cultivated the public grounds of the Roman people, and paid tithes for them, were also called ARATORES, whether Roman citizens, or natives of the provinces (provinciales), and their farms ARATIONES." But when riches increased, and the estates of individuals were enlarged, opulent proprietors let part of their grounds to other citizens, who paid a certain rent for them, as our farmers or tenants, and were properly called COLONI, CONDUCTORES, or PARTIARII, because usually they shared the produce of the ground with the proprietor. It appears that the Romans generally gave leases only for five years (singulis lustris prædia locasse). AGRICOLE was a general name, including not only those who ploughed the ground, but also those who reared vines (vinitores), or trees (arboratores), and shepherds (pastores). At first, the stock on the farm seems to have belonged to the proprietor, and the farmer received a certain share of the produce for his labour. A farmer of this kind was called POLITOR vel polintor, the dresser of the land, or PARTIARIUS; which name is also applied to a shepherd, or to any one who shared with another the fruits of his industry. Such farmers are only mentioned by Cato, who calls those who farmed their 1 Plin. xviii. 1. 3. Cato, Od. ii. 15. 17. Festus. 5 Hor. p. i. 14. Cic. 7 Cic. Cæc. 32. Colum. ix. 37. x. 24. Caius, 1. 25. s. 6. ff. Locati. 8 aratores, qui terram arant, vel ipsi sua manu vel per alios, Cic. Verr. v. 38. |