knights, too, had at all times perverted the the barbarous relaters of chimerical advenpurposes of their institution. If we believe tures, and those who devoted their time to the flattering picture given by Colombiere, their perusal.

the errant heroes of chivalry wandered through Some writers have considered the Sir Thopas the world redressing injuries, exterminating of Chaucer as a prelude to the work of Certhe banditti with which Europe was infested, vantes. It may be much to the honour of or relieving those ladies who had fallen into the English poet that he so early discerned the power of enemies. But if we examine and ridiculed the absurdities of his contemother writers, we shall meet with a very dif- porary romancers, but it cannot be conceived ferent account of these worthies, and shall that Sir Thopas had any effect in discrediting find, according to the quaint expression of an their compositions. It appeared in a reign old English author, that these errant knights which almost realised the wonders of romantic were arrant knaves. fiction, and at a period when the spirit of Pierre de Blois, who wrote in the 12th chivalry possessed too firm hold of the mind to century, complains that the horses of the suffer the love of the marvellous to be easily knights were more frequently loaded with eradicated. The satire, besides, was infinitely implements of gluttony and drunkenness, too recondite to have been detected in that than with arms fit for battle. "They are age; what was meant as burlesque was proburdened," says he, "not with weapons, but bably considered as a grave heroic narrative, wine; not with javelins, but cheeses; not with bludgeons, but bottles; not with spears, but with spits."-Non ferro sed vino, non lanceis sed caseis, non ensibus sed utribus, non hastibus sed verubus onerantur. In France, during the disorders which existed in the reign of Charles VI., the contending factions, with a view to strengthen their interest, multiplied the number of knights, by which means the order was degraded. A new institution was created by Charles VII., who bestowed on his Gensdarmerie the honours hitherto appropriated to knighthood, and the chivalry of France became anxious to enroll themselves amongst a body wherein they might arrive at military command, which, as simple knights, they could no longer attain. The image and amusements of chivalry now alone remained. Mankind were occasionally reminded of a previous state of society by the exhibition of jousts and tournaments; but even these, in a short while, became unfashionable in France, from the introduction of other amusements, and the accident which terminated the life of decline of the taste for the old works, and the one of its monarchs. stagnation of amusement which followed; The wonders of chivalry had disappeared but it is probable they were, in some measure, from real life, but still lingered in the memory overshaded by the growth of other branches of man: new romantic compositions, indeed, of literature. The study of the classics inno longer were written, but the old ones were troduced method into composition, and the still read with avidity, when all the powers of ambition of rivalling these new patterns of wit and genius were exerted-not, indeed, to excellence produced imitation. Fancy was ridicule the spirit of chivalry, or a state of curbed by reflection, and rules of criticism society which had passed away, but to satirize intimidated the bold eccentricities of romantic

- a supposition which must have been strengthened from the author having, in another composition, adopted the extravagances which he is supposed to deride. In Don Quixote, on the contrary, the satire was too broad to be mistaken, and appeared when the spirit of chivalry was nearly abated. The old romancers had outraged all verisimilitude in their extravagant pictures of chivalry, and as their successors found that the taste of the public was beginning to pall, they sought to give an interest to their compositions by descriptions of more impossible valour and more incredible absurdity. Accordingly the evil began to cure itself, and the phantoms of knight-errantry were laughed out of countenance by the ridicule of Cervantes before their substance had been presented, at least in a prose composition, by any author of genius.

I do not believe that the prevalence of the heroic, or pastoral romances, had much effect in discrediting the tales of chivalry: these new fictions rather arose in consequence of a

genius. Besides, the Gothic fables were su-in reading, which, when once formed, could perseded by the general diffusion of the works not easily have been recalled to a relish for of the Italian novelists in France and England, the delights of romance. These tales form an and the numerous translations and imitations extensive and interesting department of fiction, of them in both countries. The alternate and their origin and progress will be the pictures of ingenious gallantry and savage subject of our first inquiries in the succeeding revenge, which these exhibit, produced a taste chapters.

CHAPTER VII.

Origin of Italian Tales-Fables of Bidpai-Seven Wise Masters-Gesta Romanorum-Contes et Fabliaux-Cento Novelle Antiche-Decameron of Boccaccio.

It seems not a little remarkable that Italy, | national manners and circumstances. Since which produced the earliest and finest speci- the transference of the seat of the Roman emmens of romantic poetry, should scarcely pire to Constantinople, the Italians had never have furnished a single prose romance of been conquerors, but had always been vanchivalry. This is the more remarkable, as quished by barbarous nations, who were sucthe Italians seem to have been soon and in-cessively softened and polished at the same timately acquainted with the works of the time that they became enervated. The inhalatter description produced among the neigh-bitants possessed neither that extravagant bouring nations. Nor does this knowledge courage nor refined gallantry, the delineation appear merely from the poems of Pulci and of which forms the soul of romantic composiBoiardo, but from authors during a period tion. At a time when, in other countries, still more remote, in whom we meet with in-national exploits, and the progress of feudal numerable allusions to incidents related in institutions, were laying the foundation for the tales of chivalry. Dante represents the this species of fiction, Italy was over-run by perusal of the story of Lancelot, as conduct- the incursions of enemies, or only successfully ing Paolo and Francesca al doloroso passo defended by strangers. Hence it was difficult (Inf. c. 5), and elsewhere shows his acquaint- to choose any set of heroes, by the celebration ance with the fabulous stories of Arthur and of whose deeds the whole nation would have Charlemagne (Inf. c. 31 and 32, Parad. c. 16 been interested or flattered, as England must and 18). Petrarch also appears to have been have been by the relation of the achievefamiliar with the exploits of Tristan and ments of Arthur, or France by the history of Lancelot (Trionfi, &c.). In the Cento Novelle Charlemagne. The fame of Belisarius was Antiche there exists the story of King Melia- indeed illustrious, but as an enemy he was dus and the Knight without Fear; as also of hated by the descendants of the northern inthe Lady of Scalot, who died for love of vaders; and, as a foreigner, his deeds could Lancelot du Lac. There, too, the passion of not gratify the national vanity of those he Yseult and the phrensy of Tristan are record-came to succour. His successor's exploits ed; and in the sixth tale of the tenth day of were liable to the same objections, and were the Decameron, we are told that a Florentine besides performed by a being of all others gentleman had two daughters, one of whom the worst calculated to become a hero in a was called Gineura the Handsome, and the romance of chivalry. other Yseult the Fair.

Nevertheless the Italians have produced no original prose work of any length or reputation in the romantic style of composition. This deficiency may be partly attributed to

The early division, too, of Italy into a number of small and independent states, was a check on national pride. A theme could hardly have been chosen which would have met with general applause, and the ex

ploits of the chiefs of one district would often form so popular and so extensive a branch of have been a mortifying tale to the inhabitants Italian literature. of another.

It may be interesting, in the first place, to trace the origin of this species of composition, in the tales which preceded the Decameron of Boccaccio. These were adapted to the amusement of infant society, but are interesting in some degree, as unfolding the manners of the age, and exhibiting the rude materials of more

Besides, the mercantile habits so early introduced into Italy repressed a romantic spirit. It is evident from the Italian novelists, that the manners of the people had not catched one spark of the fire of chivalry, which kindled the surrounding nations. In the principal states of Italy, particularly perfect composition. Florence, the military profession was rather accounted degrading than honourable, during an age when, in every other country of Europe, the deference paid to personal strength and valour was at the highest. The Italian republics, indeed, were not destitute of political firmness, but their martial spirit had forsaken them, and their liberties were confided to the protection of mercenary bands.

Before mankind comprehend the subtilties of reasoning, or turn on themselves the powers of reflection, they are entertained, and may be instructed, by the relation of incidents imaginary or real. Hence, in almost every country, tales have been the amusement and learning of its rude and early ages.

Of the variety of tales which are to be found in the works of the Italian novelists, Add to this, that at the time when France some were undoubtedly deduced from the and England were principally engaged with writings of the Greek romancers and sophists. compositions of chivalry, and when all the In the Habrocomas and Anthia of Xenophon literary talent in these countries was exerted Ephesius, we find the rudiments of the celein that department, the attention paid in brated tale of Luigi da Porto, from which Italy to classical literature introduced a cor- Shakspeare took his Romeo and Juliet, and rectness of taste and fondness for regularity, many of the apologues in Josaphat and Barwhich was hostile to the wildness and extra-laam correspond with chapters in the Gesta vagance of the tales of chivalry. Romanorum, and through that performance

At the same period, the three most dis- with stories in the Decameron. The epistles tinguished and earliest geniuses of Italy were of Aristenetus contain several tales very much employed in giving stability to modes of com- in the spirit of those of Boccaccio. Thus, a position at total variance with the romantic. lady, while engaged with a gallant, suddenly Those who were accustomed to regard the hears her husband approaching; she instantly writings of Dante and Petrarch as standards ties the hands of her lover, and delivers him of excellence, would not readily have be- thus bound to her spouse as a thief she had stowed their approbation on Tristan, or the just seized. The husband proposes putting Sons of Aymon. But the Decameron of him to death, to which the lady objects, sugBoccaccio was probably the work which, in gesting that it will be better to detain him this respect, had the strongest influence. The till day-break, and then deliver him into the tales it comprehends were extremely popular; hands of the magistrate, offering at the same they gave rise to early and numerous imita- time to watch him during night. By this tions, and were of a nature the best calcu- means, while her husband is asleep, she enjoys lated to check the current of romantic a little more of the society of her lover, and ideas.

permits him to escape towards morning. In Since then, in the regions of Italian fiction, the Ass of Apuleius, resemblances may be we shall no longer meet with fabulous histories, traced still more numerous and complete. resembling those of which such numerous But though it be true that these works had specimens have already been presented, it will an influence on the tales which appeared in now be proper to give some account of the Europe at the first dawn of literature, the endless variety of tales, or Novelettes, which ultimate origin of this species of composition were coeval with the appearance of romances must unquestionably be referred to a source of chivalry in France and England, and which more ancient and oriental.

The earliest work of this nature that can back as the 13th century. This version was be mentioned, is the tales or fables attributed to Bidpai, or Pilpay, a composition otherwise known by the name of

KALILAH U DAMNAH.

made from one in Hebrew, by Rabbi Joel, and was printed toward the end of the 15th century, under the title, Directorium Humanæ Vitæ, vel Parabole Antiquorum Sapientum. Thence it passed into German, Spanish, and Italian. The Italian translation was the work This production, which, in its original form, of the novelist Firenzuola, and was called is supposed to be upwards of two thousand Discorsi Degli Animali, and published 1548. years old, was first written in an Indian lan- A version in the same tongue, by Doni, was guage, in which the work was called Heeto- translated into English, under the name of pades (wholesome instruction), and the sage the Moral Philosophy of Doni, out of Italian, who related the stories, Veshnoo Sarma. It by Sir Thomas North, 4to, 1570 and 1601. is said to have been long preserved with great From the Latin of John of Capua, there also care and secrecy by an Indian monarch, among appeared a French edition in 1698. It was his choicest treasures. At length, however from a Turkish model, however, written in (as we are informed by Simeon Seth, in the the time of Solyman the Magnificent, that the preface to his Greek version of these stories), well-known French work, Contes et Fable Chosroes, a Persian king, who reigned about Indiennes de Bidpai et Lockman, 1724, was the end of the 6th century, sent a learned commenced by M. Galland, and continued by physician into India, on purpose to obtain the M. de Cardonne. If we may judge, however, Heetopades. This emissary accomplished the from the title, it was not completed according object of the mission, by bribing an Indian to the intention of the authors, as there are sage with a promise of intoxication, to steal no fables given which are attributed to Lockthe literary treasure. The physician, on his man. This work was translated into English, return to Persia, translated it into the lan- 1747. guage of his own country, and in the frame In all the versions the tales are enclosed in in which it was introduced, attributed the a frame, a mode of composition subsequently relation of the stories to Bidpai. It was soon adopted in many writings of a similar descripafter translated into Syriac, and oftener than tion. We are told that a powerful king, after once into more modern Persic. In the 8th being tired one day with the chase, came, century there appeared an Arabic version, accompanied by his vizier, to a place of retreat under the title, Kalilah u Damnah, the appel- and refreshment. Here the prince and his lation by which the work is now generally minister enter into a discourse on human life known, and which is derived from the names and government, a conversation which seems assigned to two foxes, who relate a number of to have been suggested by a swarm of bees, the stories; the one term signifying worthy which were at labour in the trunk of a to be crowned, and the other ambitious. neighbouring oak. During this discussion, About the year 1100, Simeon Seth, by desire the vizier mentions the story of Bidpai, and of the Emperor Alexius Comnenus, translated the Indian king who ruled according to the Arabic version into Greek, under the title, his counsels. This frame is not believed to Τὰ κατὰ στεφανίτην, καὶ ίχνηκατην, of the crowned be more ancient than the Turkish version ; and the envious. The philosopher who re- but the story of Bidpai, which the king exlates the stories is not named in this version. presses a curiosity to hear, is supposed to be It is divided into fifteen sections, in the two as old as the earliest Persian translation, and first of which the foxes are the principal in- is of the following tenor:-Dabchelim, the terlocutors, but the remaining thirteen refer Indian king, after a feast in which his libeto other animals. The work of Simeon Seth rality had been much commended by all his was printed at Berlin, 1697, with a Latin guests, made a great distribution of gold among version. Long before that period, however, his friends and the poor. In the course of the Kalilah u Damnah had been translated the following night, an old man appeared to into Latin by John of Capua, who lived as far him in a dream, and, as a reward of his gene

rosity, informed him where he would find a exercised their influence on European fiction. treasure. Next morning the king proceeded Some of these stories agree with the Clericalis to the spot to which he had been directed. Disciplina of Petrus Alphonsus, and many of There he found a cavern inhabited by a her- them have been adopted into the Gesta Romit, who put him in possession of an immense manorum, a great storehouse of the Italian treasure he had inherited from his father, but novelists. The tale of the thief who breaks for which he had no farther use. Among his neck by catching at a ray of the moon, other articles, the king received a precious occurs in the Gesta and the French Fabliaux. casket, containing a piece of silk, woven with But I remember only one Italian novel, the certain characters, which, however, had the incidents of which have been derived from inconvenience of being unintelligible. When this work, and it is but in a very few stories at length interpreted by a philosopher, it was of the Kalilah u Damnah, that any resemfound to be a legacy from a prophetic prede-blance can be traced. They are mostly fables cessor of Dabchelim, and to contain fourteen in the style of Æsop, and have but few traces pieces of instruction for monarchs. Each of these is declared to have reference to a surprising history, but it is announced, that he who is desirous to hear must repair to the isle of Sarandib (Ceylon). The king being disposed to undertake this journey, and the viziers being against it, a discussion arises, in which all attempt to support their own sentiments, by the relation of fables. His majesty

of the ingenious gallantry, savage atrocity, or lively repartee, which are the characteristics of Italian tales. Besides, as the work was not very widely diffused, nor generally known in Europe in the 13th or 14th centuries, I cannot believe that it had much effect, either directly or indirectly on this species of composition.

The collection of tales, familiarly known in at length, as was to be expected, followed his this country under name of the own opinion, and, after a long journey, arrived. at the island of Sarandib. While traversing

a lofty, but delightful mountain, he came to

SEVEN WISE MASTERS,

influence on the writings of the Italian novelists, and may perhaps be regarded as the remotest origin of the materials they have employed.

a grotto which was inhabited by the Bramin is certainly one of those works which may Bidpai. This was the sage destined to ex- be considered as having had considerable pound the mysterious precepts which the king now recited to him, and which teach that a monarch is apt to be imposed on by detractors, that he ought to be careful not to lose a faithful friend, &c. These maxims the sage Of this romance the prototype is believed to illustrates by fables and apologues, which, it have been the book of the Seven Counsellors, may be remarked, have seldom much relation or Parables of Sandabar. This Sandabar is to the instructions of which Dabchelim re- said, by an Arabian writer, to have been an quired an explanation.-Stories are heaped on Indian philosopher, who lived about an hunstories, and sphered within each other: a dying dred years before the Christian era; but it father, for example, gives some admonitions has been disputed whether he was the author, to his sons, which he enforces by apologues: or only the chief character, of the work, which but his family seeing matters in a different point of view, support their opinions in the same manner, and introduce the two foxes, who rehearse a long series of fables.

was inscribed with his name. He might have been both a character and an author, but it would appear from a note in a Hebrew imitation, preserved in the British Museum, that It is unnecessary to give any specimen of he was at all events a principal character; the tales of Bidpai, as they have been so much "Sandabar iste erat princeps sapientum Brachaltered in the various transformations they manorum Indiae, et magnam habet partem have undergone, that no dependence could be in tota hac historia." This Hebrew version had on their originality. But it must have is the oldest form in which the work is now been through the medium of the version of extant. It was translated into that language, John of Capua, that these oriental fables as we are informed in a Latin note on the