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THE

PENNY CYCLOPÆDIA

OF

THE SOCIETY

FOR THE

DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

VOLUME III.

ATHANARIC—BASSANO.

LONDON:

CHARLES KNIGHT, 22, LUDGATE STREET.

MDCCCXXXV.

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A

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THE PENNY CYCLOPÆDIA

OF

THE SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION OF

USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

ATH

ATHA'NARIC, a chief or judge of the Goths who had | settled themselves on the borders of the Roman empire, north of the Danube, about the middle of the fourth century. Having aided Procopius in his rebellion, the Goths were attacked and defeated by the emperor Valens in 369. They then sued for peace, and an interview took place on this occasion between Valens and Athanaric, in a boat in the middle of the Danube. Some years after, the Huns having come down from the banks of the Volga, threatening the territory of the Goths, Athanaric opposed the barbarians at the passage of the river Dniester, but he was surprised, and obliged to retire with a part of his followers into the fastnesses of the Carpathian mountains. The rest of the Goths, under Fritigern, threw themselves on the empire for protection, and were allowed to cross the Danube and settle in Thrace. They afterwards quarrelled with the emperor Valens, whom they defeated and killed in the battle of Adrianople, in August, A.D. 378. After the death of Fritigern, and the elevation of Theodosius to the empire, Athanaric, who had remained in his fastnesses, was elected king of the Goths. He then concluded a peace with Theodosius, and repaired to Constantinople, where he was received with great pomp, in January, A.D. 381; but having surfeited himself at the emperor's table, he soon after died, and was buried with great magnificence by order of Theodosius. (Gibbon, c. xxv.) ATHANAS (Leach), a genus of the long-tailed crustaceans, bearing much resemblance to Lysmata (Risso), from which it differs in having the first pair of feet of larger size than the rest; while the second pair of Lysmata are the largest. It is small in size, and has been taken on the south coast of England and on the shores of France.

ATHANASIAN CREED, or Symbolum Athanasianum, which is also called from the words of its beginning the Symbolum Quicunque, is not extant in the works of Athanasius (which contain, vol. i. part i. p. 98, seq. another creed, stating the same doctrine, but differently expressed), and is not quoted by contemporary writers: it seems to refer to the later Nestorian and Eutychian controversies-has a Latinized character, or it sounds in Greek like a translation from a Latin original, and appears to contain phrases taken from the writings of Augustine, the bishop of Hippo. Hence we conclude that it was composed about the middle of the fifth century. Some have supposed that Vincentius Lerinensis; others, that Venantius Fortunatus; others again, that Hilarius Arelatensis wrote what is now called the Athanasian creed. According to Paschasius Quesnel, Virgilius of Tapsus, who has been considered to have interpolated the passage, 1 John. v. 7, was also the author of the Athanasian creed.

From the seventh century we find that the Athanasian creed has been considered in the western churches to be the most genuine document of the ecclesiastical trinity. It is remarkable that the Athanasian creed was not introduced by the authority of ecclesiastical councils, nor by any external compulsion, but was generally received by the free conviction of the churches that it contained a correct expo- |

No. 136.

ATH

sition of christian doctrine, and that it was necessary to give some ecclesiastical definitions of the statements of the New Testament. This important document may illustrate the difference between the solution of an historical question concerning authenticity, and one involving the internal truth of doctrinal contents. (See Cave, Historia Litter., vol. i. p. 189; Oudin, de Scriptor Eccles., vol. i. p. 312; Fabricius, Biblioth. Gr., vol. v. p. 297; Montfaucon, Præf. ad Op. Athanasii; and Schröckh, Kirchengesch. vol. xii. pp. 93-252.) Sherlock has also written on the Athanasian creed. Dr. Waterland supposed it, without much foundation, to have been made by Hilary, bishop of Arles; and Archbishop Tillotson said, "The church were well rid of it.' (See Clarke's Succession of Sacred Literature: London, 1830, p. 274.) A defence of the Athanasian creed on physiological principles, by Thomas William Chevalier, Esq., has been printed in the Morning-Watch, and published separately: London, 1830. In this dissertation a surgeon refutes the attack of some clergymen.

Before the close of the sixth century, the Athanasian Creed had become so well known, that comments were written upon it; it was not, however, then styled the Athanasian Creed, but simply the Catholic Faith. Before the expiration of another century, it had obtained the appellation which it has since preserved. It is supposed to have received the epithet Athanasian,' on account of its reference to the subjects of the controversy between the orthodox and the Arians. But Athanasius himself confined his exertions to the establishment of the doctrine of the incarnation, and seems not to have insisted much upon the doctrines relative to the Spirit.

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This creed was used in France about the year 850; was received in Spain about a hundred years later, and in Germany about the same time. It was both said and sung in England in the tenth century; was commonly used in Italy at the expiration of that century, and at Rome a little later.

Many learned men, especially Cardinal Bona, Petavius, Bellarmine, and Rivet, are of opinion that the creed which bears the name of Athanasius was really the production of that bishop. Baronius maintains this opinion, and suggests that it was composed by Athanasius when at Rome, and offered to Julius as a confession of his faith.

The controversy on the Athanasian creed has produced in England a great number of works: the most learned and impartial work on this subject is, A Critical History of the Athanasian Creed, by Daniel Waterland, D.D.; the second edition, corrected and improved: Cambridge, 1728.

ATHANA'SIUS, ST., surnamed Apostolicus, was one of the most noted divines and theological controversialists of the fourth century. The ecclesiastical history of that period is chiefly occupied with the narration of events in which he either bore a part or was closely concerned.

Athanasius was born at or near Alexandria, about the close of the third century. The Benedictines of St. Maur give A.D. 296 as the year of his birth. Elmarin relates that the

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mother of Athanasius belonged to a noble Alexandrine family, and that she was an idolater. She gave to Athanasius a good education. On her endeavouring to persuade her son to marry, he would not listen to her advice. The mother then assailed his chastity by introducing harlots into his apartments; but Athanasius flogged them and drove them away. The mother now invited a Sabæan magician to dine with him; but this sorcerer told her that Athanasius was already a Galilæan beyond the power of magic, and that he would become a great man. After hearing this, the mother introduced Athanasius to the Patriarch Alexander, and was baptized with her son. The mother died, and Athanasius, like another Samuel, remained with the patriarch. Rufinus, in his continuation of the ecclesiastical history of Eusebius, relates, that Athanasius, while yet a boy, baptized other boys in play, and that this first introduced him to the notice of Alexander, who became bishop of Alexandria, A.D. 313, and was the nineteenth patriarch of that This statement is supported by the Benedictine editors of the works of Athanasius, by Tillemont, J. A. Schmidt, S. Basnage, and others, but is rejected by many on the ground of there being an anachronism in assigning the childhood of Athanasius to the period of Alexander's possession of the bishopric.

see.

to the Nicene decrees. From this time the Meletians and
Eusebians sought the ruin of Athanasius. In A.D. 332 they
accused him before the emperor of having, without the im-
perial sanction, imposed, for the benefit of the churches, taxes
upon linen; of affording pecuniary aid to the rebels; of
ordering, during a visitation of the Mareotic congregations,
| that the chalice of the Meletian bishop, Ischeras, should be
broken, and that his liturgical volumes should be burned; of
having caused the Meletian bishop Arsenius to be mur-
dered; and of having employed the hand of Arsenius, when
severed from his body, for magical purposes. Athanasius
refuted the first two accusations by witnesses, proved that
Ischeras was not a legitimately ordained priest at the time
of this episcopal visitation, and that his chalice was not an
ecclesiastical chalice. His success in refuting the last
charge was complete: Arsenius was still alive, and with
two hands. But this acquittal, and the imperial letters,
which fully acknowledged his innocence and justified his
proceedings, were insufficient to defend him against new
attacks, The Eusebians induced the emperor, A.D. 334, to
cite him before a synod at Cesarea; but Athanasius refused
to appear before this tribunal, in which his opponents were
at the same time accusers and judges. The emperor, much
displeased by his disobedience, commanded him to appear
before a synod at Tyre, A.D. 335, to which Athanasius went
with forty-nine bishops. The former charges were repeated,
but the presence of Arsenius again disproved the accusation
of murder. Fresh crimes were now imputed to him: a woman
with whom it was alleged that the bishop of Alexandria
had committed fornication, was brought forward, but when
confronted with Athanasius, she mistook for the bishop
a friend who assisted in his defence, and thus committed
herself as a false accuser. Finding that charges from
which he had already been acquitted were perpetually
revived, and that new accusations were invented, he con-
the accusation about the broken chalice had been fully in-
vestigated, and during the absence of the Arian bishops
sent to Mareotis to examine into the charges relative to
Ischeras, he secretly retired, under the protection of the
imperial plenipotentiary, from Tyre to Constantinople. The
synod of Tyre, notwithstanding the protestation of the Egyp-
tian and Mareotic clergy, decreed the deposition and excom-
munication of Athanasius, and his exile from Alexandria:
they grounded their sentence on his disobedience to the com-
mands of the emperor; want of respect to the synod; and
alleged desecration of ecclesiastical vessels. The emperor,
desirous of doing justice to the bishop of Alexandria, cited
the judges of Tyre to account in his own presence for the
sentence which they had pronounced. The bishops pleaded
in justification of their sentence, and induced the emperor
to banish Athanasius to Treves, A.D. 336. This sentence
was procured by means of a new accusation against him,
that of having impeded the exportation of corn from Alex-
andria to Constantinople. Athanasius himself states that
the emperor exiled him in order to protect him from the
rage of his enemies. The bishopric of Alexandria remained
vacant by the express command of the emperor.

The writings of Athanasius prove that he received a learned education, and that he was acquainted with both the theological and profane literature of his age; though Gregorius of Nazianzus praises the contempt of Athanasius for heathen learning. During some part of his earlier life, Athanasius, attracted by the great reputation of St. Anthony, led for a time an ascetic life with that celebrated anchorite. In whatever way the notice of Alexander was first attracted, Athanasius early conciliated, and by his abilities retained, the favour of that prelate, who raised him rapidly from the lower ecclesiastical degrees to the office of deacon, and employed him as an assistant in his literary under-sidered even his life to be endangered; and therefore, before takings. In the Synod held at Alexandria, A.D. 321, against the Arians, Athanasius occupied the fourth place among the deacons of the Alexandrine church. In A.D. 325 he was archdeacon, and exerted considerable influence over his bishop, Alexander, and the proceedings at Nicea. In that synod he represented his bishop against the Arian party. Here Athanasius laid the foundation of his fame by his powerful refutation of Arianism; and notwithstanding his youth, he was from this time considered the first champion of the orthodox church. Alexander died in April, A.D. 326; and in the same year Athanasius was unanimously chosen bishop of Alexandria by the other orthodox bishops and by the inhabitants of the city. It is an established fact, that in those days the clergy and laity concurred in the choice of ecclesiastical superiors. It is related that Athanasius, anticipating that he might be elected, concealed himself during six months, and only re-appeared when he expected that the vacant see would be already filled. According to the Arian statements, Athanasius was consecrated bishop with illegal secrecy. It is probable that the numerous parties of the Meletians and Arians opposed the appointment of Athanasius; yet it is certain that at this period the orthodox party preponderated. A synodal report, which states the particulars of the bishops' proceedings in the choice of the new bishop of Alexandria, still exists, and has been appended to the works of Athanasius.

Athanasius, as the twentieth metropolitan of Alexandria and Patriarch of eastern Africa, obtained an extensive sphere for exertion in Egypt, Libya, and the Pentapolis, the first rank after the Roman bishop, and the highest ecclesiastical dignity in the East; but he was surrounded by bitter opponents, against whom he endeavoured to put in execution the decrees of Nicæa.

About A.D. 326 (according to some reckonings: see ABYSSINIA, vol. i. p. 58), after the conversion of the Ethiopians to christianity, Athanasius sent Frumentius, who was instrumental in their conversion, as their first bishop. But the joy which this event occasioned to Athanasius was marred by the increase of power obtained at this time by the Arian party. Among the most formidable opponents of Athanasius was Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia, who having been previously deposed on account of his Arian sentiments, was reinstated A.D. 328, and, in conjunction with the Meletians, obtained considerable influence at the court of Constantine. Athanasius declined to comply with the proposal of Eusebius to re-admit Arius into church communion, and retorted the threats of the emperor by referring

Athanasius was well received at Treves by Constans; and here he had many opportunities of strengthening his party in the West, and frequent means of communicating with Egypt. Athanasius wrote at this time a letter to the bishop Serapion on the death of Arius. The Alexandrians deeply mourned the absence of their much-revered bishop; they pathetically addressed the emperor, pleading for his restoration-an appeal which was seconded by the representations of the celebrated and esteemed hermit Anthony. The banished bishop was recalled, and restored to his see, A.D. 338, after having travelled through Germany, Pannonia, Moesia, and Thrace, to Constantinople; and from thence through Bithynia, Cappadocia, Syria, and Palestine, to Egypt. Constantine had conceded this point shortly before his death, but the actual restoration of Athanasius did not take place until the reign of his sons. The inhabitants of Alexandria received their long-absent bishop with joyful enthusiasm, but found that the demonstration of their grateful affection could not induce him to relax the reins of discipline, and that his past misfortunes had not taught him, in the least degree, to compromise the cause which he had espoused. Athanasius deposed throughout his own patriarchate the Arian bishops, and put orthodox prelates in their place. By his influence he also effected similar changes in other bishoprics. The Eusebians protested

contest.

against the return of Athanasius, alleging that the de-, cree of the synod of Tyre remained unrepealed. They revived the former accusations, and added the charge of having sold, for his own benefit, the grain and corn belonging to the church and the poor. They also imputed to his instigation the popular disturbances which took place on his return. The Eusebian party, intending to embarrass Athanasius still further, brought back to Alexandria the Arian bishop Pistus, whom Alexander had exiled; and finding that the new Roman emperor of the East, Constantius, sided with them, threatened more violent measures. Nearly a hundred of the bishops in the patriarchate of Alexandria appeared at a synod summoned by Athanasius, and refuted in a synodal letter the accusations of the Eusebians, A.D. 340. They bore a noble testimony in his favour, and called upon the whole of Christendom to rise in his defence. Athanasius despatched messengers to Julius, bishop of Rome; and the Eusebians at the same time sent delegates to Julius, requesting him to recognise Pistus. Thus were the Roman and other western churches involved in the Athanasian Athanasius went again to Rome in the year 340, accompanied by a few monks, in order to attend the synod convened by Pope Julius. Antony, the esteemed friend and revered instructor of the early manhood of Athanasius, having collected, about the year 305, a society of religious recluses from among the hermits of Africa, associated them into a community settled in Egypt, and regulated their mode of life by civil and religious rules. Baronius maintains, and his opinion is the most generally received, that it was Athanasius, who, about the year 340, transplanted the regular monastic institutions from Egypt into Italy, and erected the first monastery at Rome (Mabillon, Præf. ad Acta Sanctorum: ord. Benedict. tom. i. p. 9, &c.) Other opinions assign different localities to the first European monastic community. It is however probable that, during this visit of Athanasius to Rome, he excited there the spirit of monasticism. But, while approving the practice of monasticism, Athanasius did not sanction or overlook its abuses. Amongst many instances of his discreet interference and counsel, he thus writes to a monk who had been appointed to a bishopric, but who sought to avoid the labours of the office:-A bishop may both abstain from wine and fast frequently. We have known both fasting bishops and feasting monks. We have known both bishops who abstained from wine, and monks who indulged in it. Many among the bishops have not entered into matrimony; while, on the contrary, many monks have become fathers of children. Let every one, therefore, fight how he will the good fight. (Ep. ad Dracont.)

Athanasius also seriously refuted the indiscreet opinions of some on the subject of matrimony, and assigned to each state of celibacy and matrimony its own place in the ordinance of God. Many persons were greatly offended by this, and seriously blamed Athanasius.

Julius had declared himself in favour of Athanasius, but, in compliance with the request of the Eusebian delegates, he appointed a synod to be held at Rome. But before the assembling of this synod the Eusebians had convened another at Antioch, A.D. 341, in which it was declared that Athanasius was for ever excluded from the bishopric of Alexandria. They offered the vacant see first to Eusebius of Emesa; and on his declining the offer, it was bestowed upon Gregory of Cappadocia, who, assisted by the imperial troops, expelled Athanasius (who had returned from Rome, and held private meetings with his followers) from Alexandria about Easter, A.D. 341, and committed many acts of violence against the Homoousiasts. Philagrius, the Roman governor of Alexandria, combining his efforts with those of Gregory, sought the life of Athanasius, who fled for refuge to Rome. In the same year Julius held at Rome a synod of fifty bishops, which rejected all the accusations against Athanasius, and re-admitted him, with high encomiums, into church communion. Julius wrote energetically to the Eusebian bishops in behalf of Athanasius, but in vain; and even after the death of Eusebius, his party and that of the Arians still retained so much power as to render impracticable the return of Athanasius to Alexandria. The cause of Athanasius was the more encumbered with difficulties by the tumultuous manner in which his adherents demanded his restoration. The ex-primate of Alexandria while resident at Rome applied to Constans, the emperor of the west, for protection. Constans several times granted him a private audience. The cause of Athanasius was espoused by most of the

occidental prelates, and the endeavours of the Eusebians to obtain a compromising peace were defeated. Athanasius would agree to no peace which was not based upon the acknowledgment of the Nicene Homoousios. By his perseverance in this demand he obtained the reputation of a martyr for orthodoxy. Athanasius dreaded compromise more than schism.

On the demand of Constans, a synod was convened at Sardica in the dominions of the Western Emperor, but on the borders of the two imperial territories, A.D. 346. Ninety-four bishops of the West and seventy-six bishops from the East assembled there. The friends of Athanasius claimed that he should take his seat and vote among the congregated bishops. The orientals required that he should appear as a yet unacquitted defendant. Upon this point of dispute the contest ran so high, that most of the eastern bishops left Sardica and retired to Philippopolis. The orthodox bishops remained at Sardica, and acquitted Athanasius of the charges brought against him. The bishops assembled at Philippopolis, as a retaliation for their own excommunication and deposition pronounced by the adherents of Athanasius, excommunicated the bishops at Sardica. The synod at Sardica will be always remembered as having first established and promulgated the canons recognising the right of the bishop of Rome to act as arbitrator in all cases concerning the deposition of bishops. Athanasius remained during a considerable time at Aquileia, and obtained much influence with the emperor Constans. By means of strong threats, that prince induced his brother Constantius to re-instate the orthodox bishops who had been exiled by the Eusebians. Athanasius, after a thrice-repeated invitation, repaired to the court of the eastern empire, the imperial sincerity being attested by the officers of state, and evidenced by the public and imperative orders which were issued for the recall of all the banished adherents of Athanasius, the restitution of their privileges, and the acknowledgment of their innocence, accompanied by the reversal of all illegal proceedings of the adverse party. Constantius received the venerable primate with seeming pleasure and approbation, asking from him the single concession of permission to the Arians to hold public worship in one church in Alexandria. Athanasius replied to this request by the nullifying promise to grant it on condition that a similar liberty should be allowed to the orthodox party in every city throughout the empire.

Athanasius, on his return to Alexandria, passed through Jerusalem, and was there re-admitted into church communion by sixteen bishops. In his progress he deposed the Arian bishops, and substituted in their room ecclesiastics of the orthodox faith. On his arrival at Alexandria he was welcomed with the most joyful enthusiasm. The bishops Ursacius and Valens recanted their accusations, and others of the inimical prelates sought his favour and forgiveness. The powerful protection of Constantius procured him so much tranquillity that he was able to convene a synod at Alexandria, in which the decrees of Sardica were confirmed. The year 351 was marked by the untimely death of Constans. The hatred to Athanasius, which the power of Constans had restrained, again broke forth with redoubled force, after all fear from the pretensions of Magnentius had subsided. Athanasius was charged with having excited enmity between the imperial brothers. This charge seemed to have some foundation, as Constans had, in behalf of Athanasius, interfered with the government of Constantius. While a rival disputed the empire of the west, Constantius appeared as the friend of Athanasius; but as soon as the countenance of the venerated bishop of Alexandria ceased to be of importance to the policy of Constantius, Athanasius found that he ranked as both the personal and the theological enemy of the emperor.

The sentence of Tyre could still be urged against him; but, anxious for the consent of the western church, Constan tius summoned a synod at Arles, A.D. 353, and another, A.D. 355, of 300 bishops, at Milan. Corruption, the most infallible symptom of constitutional liberty, was successfully practised: honours, gifts, and immunities were offered and accepted as the price of an episcopal vote; and the condemnation of the Alexandrian primate was artfully represented as the only measure which could restore the peace and union of the catholic church. The friends of Athanasius were not however wanting to their leader or to their cause. With a manly spirit, which the sanctity of their character rendered less dangerous, they maintained in pub

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