b. Ex alio in aliud mutamur.

We change from one thing to another.

c. Alter alterum percussit.3

The one struck the other; or, They struck each other.

d. Tres milites alius alia dilapsi sunt.4

The three soldiers slipt off, one by one route, another by another.

e. Milites alii alia dilapsi sunt.

The soldiers slipt off, some by one route, some by another.

f. Duo pueri alter in alteram partem discessere.

The two boys parted, one to the one side, the other to the other.

g. Sex pueri alteri in alteram partem discessere.

The six boys parted, one lot to the one side, the other lot to the other.

h. Alius nunc sum atque olim.

I am different now from what I once was.5

1. For this construction see Steps XXI. 31.

2.

'The loss is heavier by that amount by which the army is greater.' 3. In this sentence the alter alterum must be understood again in the sentence, 'one struck one, one struck one;' that is, they struck each other.'

4. So in this and the following sentences: 'the three soldiers slipt away, one by one route, one by one route, one by one route;' or, as we say, one by one route, another by another;' or simply, 'by different routes.'

5. See Steps XXI. 29.

CHAPTER VII.

GENITIVE CASE.

A. The noun naming the object, from which motion is directed, was originally in the Genitive case :1 as,

Dominus laborum desinit.

The lord from labours ceases.

B. The noun naming the object, which possesses another object, is in the Genitive case: as,

2

Dominus regis sororem amat.

The lord loves the king's sister.

An object may generally be conceived as possessing another object in one of these three ways:

a. Actively as,

Dominus pueri epistolam accepit.
The lord received the boy's letter.

b. Passively: as,

Cupido lucris dominum cepit.
A desire of gain seized the lord.

c. Partitively: as,

Dominus partem epistola scripsit.

The lord wrote part of the letter.

d. The possessive adjectives meus, tuus, noster, &c., are commonly used for the Active possessor; the genitives mei, nostri, &c., for the Passive possessor; and the plural forms nostrum, vestrum, for the Partitive possessor: as,

Utrumque nostrum tua nostri memoria delectat.
Each of us two your recollection of us delights.

C. Adjectives formed from, or connected in meaning with, nouns that are followed by the Genitive of the passive possessor are also themselves followed by the Genitive. Such are adjectives denoting desire, fondness, skill, memory, knowledge, power, fulness, and the like; and also their opposites, as ignorance, forgetfulness, and the like: as,

Dominus cupidus est cibi.

The lord is desirous of food.
Dominus ignarus est belli.

The lord is ignorant of war.

D. Similarly, verbs connected in meaning with nouns that are followed by the Genitive of the passive possessor are also themselves followed by the Genitive. Such are

verbs denoting remembrance, accusation, pity, need, and the

like: as,

Dominus meminit pueri.

The lord remembers the boy.
Dominus puerum furti accusat.

The lord accuses the boy of theft.

E. Similarly, adjectives formed from, or connected in meaning with, nouns that are followed by the Genitive of the partitive possessor, are also themselves followed by the Genitive; as,

Dominus particeps periculi est.

The lord is partaking of the danger.

Dominus expers est culpæ.

The lord is free from blame.

1. Rule A gives the primary idea of the genitive-motion from. But in practice the ablative (Chapter VIII.), and not the genitive, is used to mark 'motion from.' Hence no instances are given under this Rule.

2. Rule B flows from Rule A, the secondary idea of 'possession' following naturally from the primary idea of 'motion from;' because the object, from which another comes out, has possessed that object. Sometimes this secondary idea of 'possession' is all that is obvious, as in the sentences under B; but commonly the primary idea of 'motion from' may be readily traced. Thus actively, as in B. a, the letter comes from the boy: passively, as in B. b, the desire comes from the gain as a cause; for, if there were no gain, there could be no desire for it partitively, as in B. c, the part comes out of, or from the letter.

3. The same words Galba amor may mean either 'love felt by Galba,' or 'love felt for Galba.' When Galba amor means 'love felt by Galba,' Galba is in the genitive of the active possessor, just like pueri in B. a. Galba possesses the love actively; for, as he feels it, he acts just as the boy acts, who wrote the letter. This is commonly called the subjective genitive, as being like the subject in the sentence, Galba amat, Galba loves.'

When Galba amor means 'love felt for Galba,' Galba is in the genitive of the passive possessor, just like lucri in B. b. Galba possesses

the love passively; for he does not feel it, but it is felt for him, just as the desire is felt for gain. This is commonly called the objective genitive, as being like the 'object of the verb ' in the sentence, amo Galbam, 'I love Galba.' Hence it is pressed into use after all nouns denoting action. From lego libros, 'I read books,' comes lector librorum, reader of books,' and lectio librorum, 'reading of books.' But this is a farfetched use of the genitive. See Steps VIII. 8.

S. A few adjectives may be followed both by the Genitive and Dative: by the Genitive, because they are connected with nouns that are followed by the Genitive of the passive possessor (C.): by the Dative, because they denote qualities that can be conceived as operating indirectly on objects (ch. V. B. c.): as,

Dominus conscius est facinoris.

The lord is cognisant of the deed.
Dominus conscius est facinori.
The lord is privy to the deed.

T. A few impersonal verbs—that is, verbs which do not pass through persons, but stand in the sentence in the third person singular only without a subject-word—are followed by the genitive case. These are miseret, piget, pænitet, pudet, and tædet. They come under section D, being verbs connected with nouns that are followed by the genitive of the passive possessor: as,

Dominum pudet stultitiæ.

The lord is ashamed of his folly.

4. In these verbs the primary idea both of the genitive and accusative is clearly seen. 'From the folly shame comes into the lord.' So that the genitive is used, in whatever sense shame comes from an object, not merely in the common sense of being ashamed of it: as, Nonne nos civium horum pudet? Do we not feel shame before these our fellowcountrymen ?' See App. F. I. 5.

CHAPTER VIII.

ABLATIVE CASE.

A. The noun naming the object, from which motion is directed, is in the Ablative case.1

From this law, which is taken from the Genitive, come the following rules :

a. The noun naming the object, from which motion is directed, is in the Ablative, commonly with a preposition prefixed:2 as,

Dominus ab Italia venit.

The lord comes from Italy.

b. Verbs and adjectives that denote ceasing, freeing, depriving, exemption, want, emptiness, origin, and the like, are followed by a noun in the Ablative, often without a preposition : as,

Dominus puerum periculo liberavit.

The lord freed the boy from danger.

c. The noun naming the Agent with a passive verb is in the Ablative with the preposition a (or ab) from;' because the action comes from the agent: as,

Dominus a servo portatur.

The lord is carried by the slave.

d. After comparative adjectives the noun may be in the Ablative case, because it marks the standard from which the comparison is made: as, Dominus puero melior est.

The lord is better than the boy.

B. The noun naming the object, at or about which an action operates, is in the Ablative

case.

From this law, which is taken from the Dative, it follows that an object which can be conceived as in any way accompanying, or attendant on, the action denoted by the verb, will have its noun in the Ablative case. Hence the following rules :

a. The noun naming the place or any object, at or about which an action is performed, is in the Ablative, commonly with a preposition : 2 as,