c. But, if we wish to distinguish inanimate objects, the verb should be in the Plural: as,

Ira et timor animos in contrarias partes agebant.

Rage and fear were driving their minds in different directions.

B. If the Subject-words are of different Persons (Int. 3), the pronoun for the First person stands first in the sentence; the pronoun for the Second person stands second; and then comes any other noun. The verb is in the Plural number, and agrees in Person with the Subject-word which stands first: as,

Ego et tu et puer valemus.

You and I and the boy are well.

C. a. When there are more Nouns than one, and an adjective agrees with them; then, if one of them names a living male object, the Complement Adjective is commonly in the Plural Number and Masculine Gender: as,

Et dominus et domina mihi cari sunt.

Both lord and lady are dear to me.

b. If they name inanimate objects, the Adjective is commonly in the Plural Neuter: as,

Labor voluptasque dissimillima sunt natura.

Toil and pleasure are things most unlike by nature.

c. Sometimes both Verb and Adjective may agree with

the nearest noun: as,

Caput modo humerique liberi ab aqua erant.

Only head and shoulders were free from the water.

d. If the Adjective is a simple Epithet, it should agree with the nearest noun: as

Nauta omnes terras ac maria pererrat.

The sailor traverses all lands and seas.

D. a. With Collective nouns, or Nouns of Multitude; that is, Nouns which, though singular in form, name more objects than one; the Verb and Adjective may be either in the Singular, to agree with the form as,

Romana pubes moesta silentium obtinuit.

The Roman youth in sorrow maintained silence.

as,

b. Or they may be in the Plural, to agree with the sense:

Magna pars vulnerati sunt.

A great part were wounded.

E. In all expressions the Agreement may be with the

sense: as,

Ilia cum Lauso de Numitore sati sunt.

Ilia with Lausus were sprung from Numitor.

I. The agreement of verbs is mainly guided by the sense. Living objects are clearly seen to be more than one; hence the verb is in the plural. Objects without life, and especially abstract ideas, are not clearly marked off like persons, but are apt to run into one another; hence the verb is in the singular, except when we especially wish to distinguish such objects, as in A. c. So in E, the agreement is entirely with the sense. 'Ilia with Lausus' is the same as Lausus and Ilia.'

CHAPTER XVI.

APPOSITION.

A. Nouns may be joined to nouns in the same way that adjectives are, both as Epithets and Complements. Such nouns are said to be in Apposition; and the nouns to which they are joined may be called Main nouns.

a. A noun in Apposition, whether Epithet or Complement, is in the same case as the Main noun; and should, if possible, be in the same gender and number: as,

Croesus, rex Lydiæ, mortuus est (a).

Croesus, king of Lydia, died.

Croesus rex Lydia fuit (8).

Croesus was king of Lydia.

But it cannot always be; as,

Thebas, caput Græciæ, visi (y).

I visited Thebes, the capital of Greece.

b. If there are two or more Main nouns, the noun in Apposition will be in the Plural number: as,

M. Valerius et L. Fabius consules cæsi sunt.

M. Valerius and L. Fabius the consuls were slain.

c. When the Main noun and Epithet noun differ in number and gender, the agreement of the Verb is guided by the sense: as,

Theba oppidum captum est (a).

The town of Thebes was taken.

Thebani, florentissima civitas, victi sunt (B).

The Thebans, a most flourishing state, were defeated.

B. Nouns and Adjectives may be joined to nouns as Complements, not only by the Copula sum, but by many other verbs, both active and passive, which are therefore called Copulative verbs. Such are facio, 'make,' creo, 'create,' and the like.2 These are subject to the same rules as the Copula, which may be thus restated :—

a. When an adjective or a noun is joined to a noun by the Copula, or a Copulative verb, either passive or active, it is attracted into the same case as that of the noun to which it is joined: as,

Caius est bonus.
Caius is good.

Caius est rex.
Caius is king.

Caius putatur bonus.

Caius is thought good.

Caius creatur rex.

Caius is created king.

Caium puto bonum.
I think Caius good.
Caium creo regem.
I create Caius king.

b. The Copula, or Copulative verb, may agree either with the Main noun or the Complement noun. It commonly agrees with that to which it stands nearest : as,

Amantium iræ amoris integratio est.

Lovers' quarrels are a renewal of love.

C. Not only nouns and adjectives may be joined to a Main noun, but also Predicative expressions: that is, expressions which predicate or tell something of the object named by the Main Noun. These commonly mark Quality, and may, as we have seen, be either in the Genitive or Ablative (VIII. T).

a.

Predicative expressions may be either used as

Epithets: as,

Pericles, vir summa prudentia, præfuit Athenis.

Pericles, a man of the greatest wisdom, ruled Athens.

b. Or they may be joined to the Main noun as Complements by the Copula or a Copulative verb: as,

Pericles summæ prudentiæ habitus est.

Pericles was esteemed (a man) of the greatest wisdom.

1. Some nouns are able to agree in gender, as they have different forms for male and female objects; as, magister and magistra for a 'male' and 'female teacher.' A few agree in number also; as inventor, inventrix, 'discoverer;' so that with a Plural noun, like Athena, 'Athens,' we have Athena, inventrices artium; Athens, the discoverer of arts. But with most nouns there is no change of this kind; so that they agree in case only, not in gender or number; as, Theba, caput Grecia (y).

2. For these verbs, see Steps. XIV. 11.

CHAPTER XVII.

ADJECTIVES AS NOUNS.

A. Since Latin adjectives pass through genders, they distinguish objects more clearly than English adjectives do. Hence they readily pass into nouns: that is, they stand by themselves without nouns, especially in those cases which show the gender.

B. a. Common adjectives are seldom used as nouns in the Singular. But in the Plural all adjectives may be used as nouns in the Nominative and Accusative, both Masculine and Neuter; these forms showing the gender most clearly: as,

Pios et impios facile discernimus (a).

The good and the bad we easily distinguish.

Præterita non mutamus (8).

We do not change the past.

D

b. Possessive Pronominal Adjectives (XVIII. B) are especially ready to pass into nouns in the Plural: as,

Omnia mea tui secum abstulerunt.

Your friends have carried off all my goods with them.

C. Certain adjectives pass into regular nouns, and therebe used both in the Singular and the Plural.

fore may are:

Such

a. A few Common adjectives in each gender; as amicus, 'friend,' vidua, 'widow,' sacrum, 'sacred rite;' especially Perfect Passive Participles in the Neuter gender: as,

Pueri factum probo.

I approve the boy's act.

b. Proper adjectives.

Thus the adjective Romanus,

Romana, of, or belonging to, Rome,' passes into the noun
Romanus, a Roman man,' or 'Roman,'
or Roman,' Romana, 'a
Roman woman': as,

Deinde Romanus respondit.

Then the Roman answered.

. The Demonstrative Pronominal Adjectives, hic, iste, ille, and is. These pass, with some difference of meaning (for which see Ch. XVIII. C), into the Pronoun for the Third person, he,'' she,' 'it': as,

Deinde ille id ei dedit.
Then he gave it him.

Also the Relative Qui, for which see Ch. XIX.

D. a. In the Neuter Singular, adjectives may be used as Nouns to name, not one thing, but the abstract idea denoted by the adjective: as justum, 'justice,' æquum, ' fairness,' and the like: as,

Philosophus investigat verum.

The philosopher investigates truth.

b. Adjectives denoting Quantity and Pronominal adjectives are especially used in this way: as,

Multum auri amisimus.

We have lost much gold.