CHAPTER XII.

POLYTHEISM AND PANTHEISM.

Early Religion of India allied to Magianism.-Origin of the Brahminical idolatry. -The Buddhists and Jains.-Who was Buddha ?-Polytheism and Pantheism characterized. Actual nature of Idolatry as now practised.-The Vedas.-The Pooranas.-The Tantras.-Reformed Sects.-The Sikhs.-Lamaism.-Religion of China-Of Japan-Of Birmah and Siam.-Illiterate Superstitions,

ADHERING to the principle laid down in the first chapter, that there are to be reckoned so many Religions as there are Revelations, real or pretended, we have now to give a succinct account of the Two Religions which, at the present time, divide the heathen world: the Brahminical, or that of the Hindoo mythology, which is essentially polytheistic; and the Buddhic, which, though its worship is idolatrous, is more nearly allied to Pantheism; the system which regards God as the soul of the universe, the one and only true existence, yet without attributes, alike incomprehensible and undefinable, perfectly quiescent, an Infinite Element into which all being ultimately resolves itself. In India, both these Religions have existed from time immemorial, and have come into hostile collision. Each has become subdivided into numberless diversities, so that it would occupy a volume to give an account of the extant sects of the heathen world. But all the various modifications of idolatry may be comprised under one of these two grand divisions.

The question has given rise to much learned discussion, whether Brahminism or Buddhism can claim a superior antiquity. But, in speaking of the two systems, we must guard against the fallacy of ascribing to the terms a precise and unchangeable meaning. Each has undergone, at different periods, more than one revolution. Brahminism, if it had

any relation, originally, to the worship of Brahma as the Creator, has long ceased to exist. Who the Brachmanes of ancient India were,-whether they bore a nearer affinity to the modern Brahmins, or to the votaries of the rival system, is precisely the point to be determined. The present sects of Buddhists and Jains may be comparatively modern, and yet they are certainly of higher antiquity than the existing forms of Hindooism. Primitive Brahminism, the religion of the Vedas, appears to have been closely allied to Magianism;* and its supposed derivation from Bactria, where the religion of Zoroaster had its fountain-head, agrees with this idea, which receives indirect confirmation from the affinity of the Zend to the Sanscrit.

According to Mr. Colebrooke, whose opinion is entitled to much weight," the earliest Indian sect of which we have any distinct knowledge, is that of the followers of the practical Vedas, who worshipped the Sun, Fire, and the Elements, and who believed in the efficacy of sacrifices for the accomplishment of present and future purposes. It may be supposed that the refined doctrine of the Vedantis or followers of the theological and argumentative part of the Vedas, is of later date; and it does not seem improbable that the sects of Jina and of Buddha are still more modern. But I apprehend that the Vaishnavas, meaning particularly the worshippers of Rama and of Crishna, may be subsequent to these sects, and that the Saivas also are of more recent date."†

For a considerable period, the rival sects must have flourished contemporaneously; and the persecution of the Buddhists, which terminated in their expulsion from Hindostan and the Peninsula, did not take place till the Brahminical faith had assumed a very different character from that which Mr. Colebrooke considers as its primitive form. He supposes

"The first duty of a Brahminist of the first degree is, (between eight and sixteen years of age,) to assume the zenar. This is the initial ceremony. He next learns the gayteree, which consists of certain words in praise of the sun."—Ayeen Akbery, vol. ii. p. 511. The gayteree or gayutree is explained in Rammohun Roy's Translation of the Veds, pp. 116, 117. The worship of the sacred fire is expressly enjoined in the Yajur Veda.-See Ibid. p. 103. + Asiatic Researches, vol. ix. p. 293.

it to have commenced with the Vaishnavas and Saivas; the rise of these sects consequently must have been subsequent to the era at which Buddhism appears to have prevailed over the whole of India from Bamian to Ceylon, and to which era must be referred the stupendous excavations at Ellora. The Brahminical caves are all dedicated to the obscene symbol of the Saivas, indicating their later execution. The remains. of stupendous works evidently executed by the Buddhists, are found scattered over the whole extent of country at present in the possession of the followers of the Brahminical religion; and in many instances where no Buddhist is known, at any recorded period, to have existed. The absence of the institution of caste among the Buddhists, has been adduced as a proof of their higher antiquity; but it is, perhaps, rather an indication of a diversity of national origin. There seems strong reason to believe, that the Buddhic faith was the prevalent creed of the Bheel tribes, as well, probably, as of the Tamul nations, who seem to have the strongest claims to be regarded as the aborigines of Central, Eastern, and Southern India; while the Brahminical system was an exotic, and, together with the yoke of caste, was introduced into India by northern conquerors. The Jains or Joinüs, who agree with the Buddhists in the essential characteristics of their faith, but differ from them in recognising the distinction of castes, as well as in having adopted many of the practices and observances of the Hindoos,* were, in all probability, not only of posterior origin as a sect, but, as a race, more closely related to the great Hindoo family; and many of their tribes are of Rajpoot descent.

The essential character of the Hindoo institutions has been deemed to be the distribution of the people into four great castes, which is found existing among the Jains, but with this marked difference from Brahminism, that their priests are selected from different castes, and do not marry. A distribution of society into four orders was not peculiar to the Brahminical legislator. Jemsheed is said to have divided the Persians into four classes; and it appears from Herodotus, that such a distinction existed among the Medes at the commencement of the monarchy. It obtained also among the Colchians, Iberians, Athenians, Egyptians, and Peruvians. What is most peculiar about the Brahminical law of caste, is the wide and impassable distance which the laws of Menu place between the Brahmin and the rest of his countrymen.

When the Buddhist tribes gave way before their conquerors, the Jains appear to have connected themselves with the prevailing faith by the ties of caste, and, probably, by frequenting the religious ceremonies of the Brahmins; as is still customarily done by the Jain Banians of the northern parts of Gujerat. They secretly preserved their ancient doctrines, however; and even in the countries in which they were most persecuted, gradually formed themselves into separate religious associations. In the South of India, Kanara, Gujerat, and Marwar, they seem always to have preserved some political consequence, and exist in great numbers; and in the latter countries at least, the Jains and Hindoos intermarry.* In some instances, till very recently, both in some parts of Gujerat and in the Mahratta country, where they were in more complete subjection, their temples were underground, to escape the observation of the Brahmins; and materials are said to have been kept in readiness for filling up the entrance, or covering the images, in case of suspicion. Their connexion with the Brahmins has gone so far as to induce them, at some of their temples, to admit into the sacred enclosure certain gods of the Brahmins; Vishnoo, Gunesh, and Kartikeya, and to new-model some of their religious books to suit the change. But this laxity appears to be quite unauthorized by the more pure and ancient religion both of Jains and Boodhists." +

The traditional chronology of these two sects assigns nearly the same period to their founder, namely, about B.C. 600. Mr. Colebrooke supposes the sect of Jains to have been founded by Pars' wanatha, and thoroughly established by Mahavira,

Mewar, Col. Tod says, has from the most remote period afforded a refuge to the followers of the Jain faith, and “the noblest remains of architecture are Buddhist or Jain." One of the best preserved monuments is a column, 70 feet high, elaborately sculptured, and dedicated to Parswanath, at Chitore. "Rajasthan and Saurashtra are the cradles of the Buddhist or Jain faith. The officers of the state and revenue are chiefly of the Jain laity, as are the majority of the bankers from Lahore to the ocean. More than half of the mercantile wealth of India passes through their hands." "The pontiff of the Khartragatcha, one of the many branches of this faith, has 11,000 clerical disciples scattered over India." The Jains are termed in reproach Vediavan, or magicians.-Trans.of Roy. Asiat. Soc. vol. ii. p. 282.

+ Trans. of Royal Asiatic Society, vol. i. p. 502. It may be questioned whether these subterranean temples do not owe their origin to fear of the Mussulmans.

both of whom have been venerated by their followers as deified saints (Jinas), and are so worshipped by the sect to this day. Mahavira is said to have had eleven disciples, eight of whom became the heads of distinct sects (guchch' has), the remaining three forming a ninth; and these nine have in course of time become subdivided into eighty-four. The two grand subdivisions, however, are into Swetambaras (whiterobed) and Digambaras (unclothed): the former are most numerous in Gujerat, the latter in Rajpootana and northern Hindostan. The Digambaras separated from the general body about A.D. 552: the chief points upon which they differ from the Swetambara Jains, are stated to be, their representing their gods without clothing, their denying the deified. rajahs or saints to be supreme gods, their requiring their sadhus or ascetics to deny themselves clothing and any other article of equipment than a fan of peacock's feathers and a cup, and their allowing only the ten Mula Sútras of the holy books of the Jains to be original, rejecting all the rest. According to the Swetambaras, the sacred books are forty-five in number, and are divided into four classes: metaphysical, or those which treat of motion, vacuum, life, and matter; ethical, those which treat of the duties of sád'hus, the rules of the ascetic life, and the steps to the attainment of mócsha (absorption); cosmographical; and the histories of the saints. A sect of reformed Jains, called Luncas, who separated from the main body A.D. 1475, acknowledge only thirty-two sutras, and reject the worship of images and pilgrimages, as not being prescribed by the original and authentic siddhantus or sacred books.

The language in which the Jaina sutras are written, is the Magadha-bashee or Pali; and according to their historical records, they were first committed to writing 980 years after Mahavira, or about A.D. 380.§ The most ancient Jain

* The word Jaina is a regular derivative from Jina, in the same manner as Baudd'ha is from Budd'ha.

+ Trans. of Roy. Asiatic Soc. vol. iii. p. 358. On the Jainas of Gujerat and Marwar, by Lieut.-Col. Miles.

Trans. of Roy. Asiatic Soc. vol. iii. pp. 369, 343, 364.

§ Ib. p. 346.