First grade, to head masters, masters, and junior masters of the normal and high schools and principals of evening high schools; second grade, to masters and submasters of grammar schools, principals of evening elementary schools, and assistants of evening high schools; third grade, to assistant principals and assistants of normal and high schools; fourth grade, to assistants of grammar, primary, and evening elementary schools; special grade, to instructors in special studies and in schools for the deaf and licensed minors.

These certificates are, very properly, valid within the city for an indeterminate period.

In general, the examination of teachers is conducted by a standing committee of the school board, with the assistance and coöperation of the superintendent. In some important cities, this examining committee leaves the business of examining mainly to the superintendent. In New York and some other cities, the examining and certificating of teachers are almost exclusively in the hands of the superintendent.

Is it not possible that a scheme of examination well calculated to keep ignoramuses out of the teaching profession may not be equally well calculated to do justice to candidates of the highest order? In the existing scheme of examination in the system of the District of Columbia the device for solving this problem is worthy of notice. This device consists in providing that the examination and certificate for situations above the eighth grade shall be special, which means, it is presumed, that the examination is not to be conducted in conformity with the general rules relating to the matter, but shall be adapted to each individual case. The system of examination in the District of Columbia has some other features which are somewhat peculiar. This board of examiners, which consists of the two superintendents and such other members as may be appointed by the school board from the supervising principals and principals of schools, is divided into two sections, designated as first and second. The first, comprising the two superintendents and one other examiner, prepares the questions and superintends the examination, while the members of the second, who are not permitted to be present while the examination is going on, are charged with the duty of examining and marking the papers of the candidates. The results thus obtained are reported to the committee on teachers, while the oral examination is made and reported on by the first section. It is the duty of the committee on teachers to examine these results and to report to the school board the names of the candidates whom they deem worthy of certificates and the class of certificates to which they may be thought severally entitled, together with any other facts deemed necessary or that may be called for. And finally, the school board, with such information in their possession, determines what candidates may receive certificates and the class of such certificates. The candidates are known only by numbers till the question of certificate is decided.

Of this unique system of examination, the annual report for 1880 remarked as follows:

The most important act of the board of trustees since its organization, August 2, 1878, was the adoption of amendments to Articles IV and V of the by-laws. These amendments consisted of a series of provisions and safeguards thrown around the examinations of applicants for teacherships and promotions. They were prepared by Charles E. Hovey, esq., of the old board of trustees, and, in addition to providing a philosophical and uniform rule for examination of candidates, they secured impartiality on the part of the examiners, independence on the part of the trustees, and provided scholarship as a basis of admission as an instructor, leaving to time-the only test-to determine respecting the possession of those other essential qualifications whose possession or want trial alone can discern.

The amendments have been an impassable barrier to the entrance into the profession of teacher of many applicants who, together with their friends, regard public schools as an asylum for the maintenance of such as have more influence than means, more friends than abilities.

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The board can congratulate itself upon the possession of a method of examination which not only secures the strictest impartiality, but leaves no room for suspicion upon the part of the class of chronic fault finders that infest every school community.

It may readily be admitted that this plan is well calculated to guard against partiality, but it seems to make no provision for considering any evidence of competency other than the marking by the examiners of the results of the examination in the prescribed branches of study, such as successful experience in teaching, courses of education passed through, testimonials of scholarship received, &c.

The system of examination and certificating of teachers which has been in operation in the city of Denver for a number of years being peculiar in some of its features and being known to me to have worked very successfully, a description of it is here introduced.

It is made the duty of the committee on teachers, consisting of two members, to examine or cause to be examined all applicants for positions as teachers. It is made the duty of the superintendent to assist in conducting examinations of applicants for positions as teachers and to issue certificates as provided by law under the direction of the board. The examination is both oral and written and embraces reading, spelling, English grammar, physical and descriptive geography, arithmetic, elements of algebra, United States history, English literature, elements of vocal music, and methods and theory of teaching.

The certificates are not graded and they are granted for an indeterminate period.

On an appointed day all who wish to obtain a certificate to teach in our schools present themselves as a class. No preliminaries previous to this time are necessary. The following instructions are given to them:

66 DIRECTIONS TO CANDIDATES.

"At the beginning of the examination an envelope, with a number written thereon, will be handed you. You will be known during the examination not by your name but by the number on your envelope.

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CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885.

"Write on a slip of paper your number, name in full, and present address; inclose the slip in a numbered envelope and seal the envelope.

"At the head of every sheet and separate half sheet of paper used at this examination write your number and the subject. Place before the answers the same figures that are before the questions."

Having taken this precation to have the examination impersonal, questions on the branches required are submitted to the candidates and written answers obtained. These written papers are overlooked and ranked as is the custom in all written examinations. The average standing of the individual obtained from all the papers is recorded as the scholarship standing.

Each person (number) whose scholarship standing has been found satisfactory is asked to remain for a personal interview with the committee and such members of the board as can be present. This interview lasts from twenty to thirty minutes, during which time the candidate presents evidence of good moral character, and takes part in conversation relative to her history, experience, and success, and answers questions propounded by the superintendent on theory of teaching.

At the close of the interview, the candidate having withdrawn, each member of the board present rates the ability of the candidate on a scale of ten, each member stating -in figures his estimate of the candidate's fitness for work in our schools. The average of this ranking by members of the board is the candidate's standing in oral examination.

The average of the scholarship standing and of the oral examination standing is the final rank of the candidate. When each member of the class has passed a like examination, the individual standing of each is set opposite the appropriate number and the board elect what numbers shall receive certificates to teach in our schools. Then the sealed envelopes are opened and the names of the candidates learned. From those holding certificates, teachers are elected in the order of their rank at examination.1

This system, it will be seen, is like that of the District of Columbia in reserving the awarding of certificates in the hands of the school board, while it differs from it widely in making much of evidence of qualification other than that of scholarship ascertained by the examination, and it affords a good safeguard against favoritism in the appointments. It is also in effect a competitive examination for appointment as well as a general examination for a certificate.

A general survey of this element of our city systems leads to the conclusion that, on the whole, it is far from being all that could be desired. This subject deserves far more attention than it has received from our leading educators. It is obviously a delicate subject for the discussion of superintendents in their reports; and hence, if referred to by them at all, it is for the most part referred to in a perfunctory or timid manner. We have much to learn in this regard from those countries where civil service and educational service examinations have been far more scientifically treated than with us. The administrators of our city systems might study with profit the examination scheme of the civil service in England. In France, the examination of pupils and teachers, both general and competitive, has been reduced to almost an exact science. Our examinations for principals and teachers in high schools From report for 1883 by P. Gottesleben and Frank Church, committee on teachers. 126

CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS IN THE UNITED STATES.

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are especially lame and inadequate. Examinations of teachers for certificates ought to be in the hands of the State authorities. Local boards or municipal boards might be allowed to institute competitive examinations of certificated teachers for appointment to particular situations, such examinations having reference rather to skill and capacity than to scholastic attainments.

PREPONDERANCE OF FEMALE TEACHERS.

One of the most notable characteristics of our school system is the overwhelming preponderance of female teachers. So great is this preponderance that it would probably be not far from the truth to say that the cities where male teachers are employed in elementary schools, in any other capacity than that of principals or as teachers of special subjects, such as German, for example, may be reckoned as the exceptions. In the high schools, the proportion of male teachers is much larger than in those of the elementary grades. In the mixed high schools, especially in the larger cities, the number of male teachers is, perhaps, nearly equal to that of the female teachers. Where the high schools are unmixed, those for boys are taught by male teachers, while the schools for girls are taught mostly by female teachers, under the direction of a male principal. The following tables exhibit the proportion of male to female teachers in twenty-four representative cities:

Table showing the proportion of male to female teachers in ten cities of the first class.

Table showing the proportion of male to female teachers in fourteen representative cities.

It will be seen by the above tables that the average proportion of male teachers to female teachers in the twenty-four cities represented is about 1 to 10. The average of all the cities taken together would probably vary not far from this showing. Philadelphia has the lowest proportion of male teachers, but the male teachers employed are actually engaged in teaching, each one of these, except the high school teachers, being confined to the care and instruction of the upper class of a boys' grammar school and having supervision over a very limited number of lower classes. The next lowest proportion is found in Chicago. In this city there are, in fact, in the elementary schools no male teachers, properly so called. The men reckoned as teachers are, in reality, supervising principals, each having a large number of classes and teachers under his direction and supervision. It will be seen that in Cincinnati the proportion of male teachers is about six times as great as that of Philadelphia and Chicago. This is the result of the policy of employing to some extent male assistants in the elementary schools. This is the case in the other large cities, where the proportion is comparatively high, namely, Milwaukee, New York, St. Louis, and Boston. In Milwaukee there are several male principals of primary schools, as well as some subordinate male teachers of district schools, and, in addition, a number of special male teachers of the German language; and hence the high ratio of male teachers as compared with other cities. In some cases ladies are employed as principals of large mixed schools composed of grammar and primary grades. In Cleveland the experiment was made several years ago of placing all the elementary schools in charge of female principals, three or four general supervising male principals being employed to visit the schools at short intervals to give assistance where needed in the discipline and management. On the