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dry plains of King Charles's Southland, as already observed. (Captain Philip Parker King, in London Geogr. Journal, vol. i.; Captain Fitzroy, in ditto, vol. vi.; and Captain Basil Hall's Journal.)

FUEL is any combustible matter employed for the purpose of creating and maintaining heat. In the early ages of the world, wood must have constituted, as indeed in many countries it does to this day, the principal fuel employed. Wood consists chiefly of three principles: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The two former are both of them highly combustible; and the last principle is especially so, and is the principal cause of the flame with which wood is well known to burn. When the smoke occasioned by the combustion of wood is found inconvenient, or when the fuel is required to last for a longer period in a given bulk, then charcoal is employed, which is merely wood that has undergone imperfect combustion, so as to expel its hydrogen and oxygen, and to leave the greater part of the carbon.

Another kind of fuel, which doubtless was early in use on account of the facility with which it is obtained from its nearness to the surface, is peat, or, as it is sometimes called, turf: this is a congeries of vegetable matter, in which the remains of organization are more or less visible. Peat is the common fuel of a large part of Wales and Scotland, and of many districts of England, where coal is not readily procured.

In this country, however, coal furnishes the great supply of fuel, and its various kinds are employed in different ways and for different purposes according to its nature and that of the substance to be acted on by its agency. When coal, by a process analogous to that by which charcoal is procured from wood, is freed from its more volatile constituents, hydrogen, oxygen, and azote, it is converted into coke; it then burns with but little flame and comparatively little smoke, and is used for giving an intense degree of heat in the reduction of most metallic ores, especially those of iron.

In some cases a mixture of coke and charcoal is very advantageously employed, especially in assaying in the small way. The mixture gives out a great degree of heat while burning, and being more combustible than coke alone, small furnaces, in which the draught is less powerful than in larger ones, are particularly adapted for its use; and though it consumes faster than coke, it lasts longer, gives a greater heat, and is more economical than charcoal alone. In some countries, even the dried excrement of animals is used as fuel: and from the use of camel's dung the formation of sal ammoniac was derived in Egypt; this salt subliming from the excrement during its combustion.

In small chemical operations, as for the blow-pipe, tallow or wax candles are frequently employed; and in lamps, oil, spirit of wine, or pyroxilic spirit, and even carburetted hydrogen gas, are used, either for the purpose of boiling or evaporating small quantities of fluids, or dissolving various bodies in different menstrua.

During the combustion of different kinds of fuel, the products vary: thus, when wood, coal, wax, tallow, oil, alcohol, or carburetted hydrogen is employed, the principal products are carbonic acid gas and water; when charcoal is used, carbonic acid is almost the only volatile substance formed, for the hydrogen which the wood contained is expelled by the process of charring.

FUENTE RABIA, or FONTARABIA. [GUIPUZcoa.]
FUERTAVENTURA. [CANARIES.]

FUGGER, a German family, originally of Augsburg, that amassed great wealth in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries by commerce, and especially by the monopoly of the spices, which they drew from Venice, and with which they supplied Germany and other parts of the Continent. The Fuggers were created counts by Charles V. in 1530, to whom they had lent large sums of money; and a story is told of their lighting a fire of cinnamon-wood with his bond or bonds for the amount, in the presence of Charles, who happened to be a visiter at their house in passing through Augsburg. They also supplied Philip II. with money, and two of their family contracted with the Spanish government for the mines of Almaden. [ALMADEN.] The family became divided into several branches, one of which obtained the rank of princes of the German empire, under the title of Fugger Babenhausen, near Ulm. The family continue to this day, and their domains are partly in Bavaria and partly in Würtemberg. The Fugger family, in the sixteenth

| century, made a liberal use of their wealth, in founding charitable institutions, such as the one still called Fuggerei [AUGSBURG]; in promoting learning, collecting MSS., and forming valuable libraries. Several members of the family were themselves men of learning; among others Ulrich Fugger, born about 1520, was for a time a confidential attendant of Pope Paul III., but afterwards returned to Germany, and had several valuable MSS. of classic authors which he had collected printed at his own expense. He engaged as his printer Henri Estienne, with a handsome salary. His family being dissatisfied with his expenditure, obtained an order from the civil courts taking away from Ulrich the administration of his property under the pretence of incapacity; but the order was ultimately rescinded, and he was restored to his rights. He died in 1584 at Heidelberg, leaving his fine library to the Elector Palatine and several legacies to poor students. Another Fugger wrote a history of Austria, published at Nürnberg in 1668. Philip Edward Fugger, born in 1546, added greatly to the library and cabinet of antiquities begun by his ancestors at Augsburg, and distinguished himself by his munificence. Otho Henry Fugger, count of Kirchberg and Weissenhorn, born in 1592, served with the Spanish army in Italy, and afterwards raised troops in Germany for the Emperor Ferdinand II. during the Thirty Years' War. (Imhoff, Notitia Imperii; Moreri's Dictionary, art. Fugger;' Almanach de Gotha.)

FUGUE, in music, a composition in which a Subject, or brief air, passes successively and alternately from one part to another, according to certain rules of harmony and modulation. Such is Rousseau's definition, which would have been more complete if he had added that the Fugue is also formed after rules peculiar to itself. The term seems to have originated about the middle of the fifteenth century, and is commonly supposed to be derived from the Latin word fuga (flight), because the theme, or point, flies from part to part; but this etymology is by no means satisfactory, though we certainly have no better to offer

Writers on music enumerate many kinds of Fugue, the chief of which are, the Strict Fugue, the Free Fugue, the Double Fugue, and the Inverted Fugue; to which we shall add that species-for it decidedly belongs to the Fugue ge-called Imitation.

In a Strict Fugue,' says Dr. Crotch (Elements of Composition), 'the subject is given out by one of the parts, then the answer is made by another; and afterwards the subject is repeated by a third part, and, if the fugue consist of four parts, the answer is again made by the fourth part after which the composer may use either the subject or the answer, or small portions of them, in any key he pleases, or even on different notes of the key. In this severe kind of composition, when the subject, or leader, or point, or dux, or by whatever name the theme may be designated, is comprised between the tonic and the dominant, the answer (or Comes) must be given in the notes contained between the dominant and the octave. Ex.:

Subject.

Answer.

The chorus He trusted in God,' in the Messiah, is a fine specimen of this sort of fugue, to which we refer the reader; for few are without that sublime oratorio in some form.

In the Free Fugue much more latitude is allowed the composer; he is not so restrained by the subject, but may introduce what Albrechtsberger terms episodes-passages not closely related to the theme, though they should never be very foreign to it. The overture to the Zauberflöte affords a splendid example of this species. The Double Fugue consists of two or more subjects, moving together, and dispersed among the different parts. Dom. Scarlatti's in D minor is a double fugue which has no superior of its kind. The first few bars of this will more clearly explain than words can do the nature of so elaborate a species of composition.

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Fugues of more than two subjects are classed, not very | correctly, among double fugues; they are however rare, for which reason perhaps they have never received a distinguishing name. Of these the fugue of four subjects in the finale to Mozart's grand symphony in C, and that of the same description in Handel's Alexander's Feast, the chorus Let Old Timotheus yield the prize,' are master-pieces of their kind. All of this species must be considered as free fugues. The term Fugue by Inversion requires little explanation. In this the theme is inverted, as the name implies, but the effect arising out of such contrivance is appreciable only by those who know its difficulty, and estimate its merit by the quantity of labour it has cost. In the Fugue by Augmentation, the notes of the answer are doubled in length. In the Fugue by Diminution, exactly |

the reverse takes place. There are also other kinds of Fugue, but they are now almost forgotten, and it would be waste of paper and print to revive their names.

Imitation is a species of fugue, and by theorists is generally treated on previously to and as the precursor of the latter. As the word indicates in this kind of composition, the theme is more or less imitated in the different parts. It is not, says Fux (Gradus ad Parnassum), required that every note should be imitated, but only some part of the subject; and Imitation is rather to take place in the middle than in the commencement of a composition. It may be made in any of the intervals, and in fact is governed by scarcely any rule. The learned contrapuntist just named gives the following as an example of Imitation in the Unison :

:

The effect of technical imitation in music is unquestionably | former territory of Fulda was one of the oldest ecclesiastical great; it is felt by all who have the slightest skill in the endowments in Germany, having been founded by Boniart, therefore employed by all great composers of every facius and his colleague Sturm, in the year 744; it ceased school, antient and modern. Canon, which is sometimes however to be under episcopal jurisdiction in 751, was recalled a perpetual fugue, may perhaps be admitted, though vived as a bishoprick in 1752, fell to the prince of Nassaucautiously, as part of a course of professional study, but should Orange as a secularized principality in 1803, was incorporarely, if ever, be allowed to pass the boundaries of the rated by Napoleon with the grand-duchy of Frankfort in school. [CANON.] Fugue, but not of the pedantic or fan- 1810, and in 1815, after being ceded to Prussia, was immetastic kind, should be an object of serious attention with diately afterwards made over to Hesse-Cassel. The soil is those who are ambitious of becoming great composers, not so rich as that of other parts of the electorate; the though in its severe form it ought to be almost confined to country is intersected by branches of the Rhön and Vogel cathedral music and to the oratorio, and is admissible there ranges, and watered by the Fulda, Kinzig, Werra, Haune, only when introduced with great discretion, and guided by and other rivers. It produces corn, flax, potatoes, and timthe hand of an experienced sensible master. But with-ber, in considerable quantities. The rearing of cattle is one out that which is here to be understood by the term imitation or the recurrence, in some shape, of the chief subject -music in parts, of even a very simple kind, loses one of its greatest beauties. Let it be used however with a view solely to effect: if resorted to for the mistaken purpose of displaying what a young or a dull composer may call his learning, imitation will prove to be nothing better than mere plodding, and capable of exciting no emotion except that which is the very reverse of pleasing. FULCRUM. [LEVER.] FULDA, river. [WESER.]

FULDA, a province of the electorate of Hesse-Cassel, between 50° and 51° N. lat., and 9° and 10° E. long., is bounded on the north-east by Saxe-Weimar, on the east and south-east by Bavaria, and on the west by the grandduchy of Hesse-Darmstadt. Its area is about 880 square miles, and its population about 126,600. It contains part of the former grand-duchy of Fulda (a considerable portion of it having been united to Bavaria in 1815), the principality of Hersfeld, and the seigniory of Schmalkalden. The

of the principal occupations of the inhabitants: among the mineral productions are brown coal, potter's clay, and small quantities of salt.

The province is divided into the circles of Hersfeld, Schmalkalden, Hünfeld, and Fulda, and contains five towns, seven market villages, and 198 other villages, together with about 17,200 houses. Besides Fulda, the chief town, the principal towns are Hersfeld, on the Fulda, and Geiss, a walled town, with a spacious market-place, a castle, 2 churches, about 670 houses and 6400 inhabitants, and manufactures of woollens, dimity, serges, and leather. Schmalkalden, on the Schmalkalde, surrounded by walls, with 3 suburbs, the 2 castles of Wilhelmsburg and Hessenhof, 2 churches, 2 gymnasia, and salt-works producing annually about 620 tons. The population is about 4850. Large quantities of iron and steel ware are made here, besides salt, stockings, white lead, arms, buttons, pipeheads of Meerschaum, woollen yarn, &c. This was the place where the Protestant princes of Germany formed a league for their mutual defence in 1531, after six great assemblies held here

dry plains of King Charles's Southland, as already observed. (Captain Philip Parker King, in London Geogr. Journal, vol. i.; Captain Fitzroy, in ditto, vol. vi.; and Captain Basil Hall's Journal.)

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century, made a liberal use of their wealth, in founding charitable institutions, such as the one still called Fuggerei [AUGSBURG]; in promoting learning, collecting MSS., and forming valuable libraries. Several members of the family FUEL is any combustible matter employed for the pur- were themselves men of learning; among others Ulrich pose of creating and maintaining heat. In the early ages Fugger, born about 1520, was for a time a confidential of the world, wood must have constituted, as indeed in attendant of Pope Paul III., but afterwards returned to many countries it does to this day, the principal fuel em- Germany, and had several valuable MSS. of classic authors ployed. Wood consists chiefly of three principles: car- which he had collected printed at his own expense. He bon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The two former are both of engaged as his printer Henri Estienne, with a handsome them highly combustible; and the last principle is espe- salary. His family being dissatisfied with his expenditure, cially so, and is the principal cause of the flame with obtained an order from the civil courts taking away from which wood is well known to burn. When the smoke oc- Ulrich the administration of his property under the pretence casioned by the combustion of wood is found inconvenient, of incapacity; but the order was ultimately rescinded, and or when the fuel is required to last for a longer period in a he was restored to his rights. He died in 1584 at Heidelgiven bulk, then charcoal is employed, which is merely berg, leaving his fine library to the Elector Palatine and wood that has undergone imperfect combustion, so as to several legacies to poor students. Another Fugger wrote expel its hydrogen and oxygen, and to leave the greater a history of Austria, published at Nürnberg in 1668. Philip part of the carbon. Edward Fugger, born in 1546, added greatly to the library Another kind of fuel, which doubtless was early in use and cabinet of antiquities begun by his ancestors at Augson account of the facility with which it is obtained from its burg, and distinguished himself by his munificence. Otho nearness to the surface, is peat, or, as it is sometimes Henry Fugger, count of Kirchberg and Weissenhorn, born called, turf: this is a congeries of vegetable matter, in in 1592, served with the Spanish army in Italy, and afterwhich the remains of organization are more or less visible. wards raised troops in Germany for the Emperor FerPeat is the common fuel of a large part of Wales and Scot-dinand II. during the Thirty Years' War. (Imhoff, Notitia land, and of many districts of England, where coal is not Imperii; Moreri's Dictionary, art. Fugger;' Almanach readily procured. de Gotha.)

In this country, however, coal furnishes the great supply of fuel, and its various kinds are employed in different ways and for different purposes according to its nature and that of the substance to be acted on by its agency. When coal, by a process analogous to that by which charcoal is procured from wood, is freed from its more volatile constituents, hydrogen, oxygen, and azote, it is converted into coke; it then burns with but little flame and comparatively little smoke, and is used for giving an intense degree of heat in the reduction of most metallic ores, especially those of iron.

In some cases a mixture of coke and charcoal is very advantageously employed, especially in assaying in the small way. The mixture gives out a great degree of heat while burning, and being more combustible than coke alone, small furnaces, in which the draught is less powerful than in larger ones, are particularly adapted for its use; and though it consumes faster than coke, it lasts longer, gives a greater heat, and is more economical than charcoal alone. In some countries, even the dried excrement of animals is used as fuel and from the use of camel's dung the formation of sal ammoniac was derived in Egypt; this salt subliming from the excrement during its combustion.

In small chemical operations, as for the blow-pipe, tallow or wax candles are frequently employed; and in lamps, oil, spirit of wine, or pyroxilic spirit, and even carburetted hydrogen gas, are used, either for the purpose of boiling or evaporating small quantities of fluids, or dissolving various bodies in different menstrua.

During the combustion of different kinds of fuel, the products vary: thus, when wood, coal, wax, tallow, oil, alcohol, or carburetted hydrogen is employed, the principal products are carbonic acid gas and water; when charcoal is used, carbonic acid is almost the only volatile substance formed, for the hydrogen which the wood contained is expelled by the process of charring.

FUENTE RABIA, or FONTARABIA. [GUIPUzcoa.]
FUERTAVENTURA. [CANARIES.]

FUGGER, a German family, originally of Augsburg, that amassed great wealth in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries by commerce, and especially by the monopoly of the spices, which they drew from Venice, and with which they supplied Germany and other parts of the Continent. The Fuggers were created counts by Charles V. in 1530, to whom they had lent large sums of money; and a story is told of their lighting a fire of cinnamon-wood with his bond or bonds for the amount, in the presence of Charles, who happened to be a visiter at their house in passing through Augsburg. They also supplied Philip II. with money, and two of their family contracted with the Spanish government for the mines of Álmaden. [ALMADEN.] The family became divided into several branches, one of which obtained the rank of princes of the German empire, under the title of Fugger Babenhausen, near Ulm. The family continue to this day, and their domains are partly in Bavaria and partly in Würtemberg. The Fugger family, in the sixteenth

FUGUE, in music, a composition in which a Subject, or brief air, passes successively and alternately from one part to another, according to certain rules of harmony and modulation. Such is Rousseau's definition, which would have been more complete if he had added that the Fugue is also formed after rules peculiar to itself. The term seems to have originated about the middle of the fifteenth century, and is commonly supposed to be derived from the Latin word fuga (flight), because the theme, or point, flies from part to part; but this etymology is by no means satisfactory, though we certainly have no better to offer

Writers on music enumerate many kinds of Fugue, the chief of which are, the Strict Fugue, the Free Fugue, the Double Fugue, and the Inverted Fugue; to which we shall add that species-for it decidedly belongs to the Fugue ge-called Imitation.

154

In a Strict Fugue,' says Dr. Crotch (Elements of Composition), the subject is given out by one of the parts, then the answer is made by another; and afterwards the subject is repeated by a third part, and, if the fugue consist of four parts, the answer is again made by the fourth part : after which the composer may use either the subject or the answer, or small portions of them, in any key he pleases, or even on different notes of the key. In this severe kind of composition, when the subject, or leader, or point, or dux, or by whatever name the theme may be designated, is comprised between the tonic and the dominant, the answer (or Comes) must be given in the notes contained between the dominant and the octave. Ex.:

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Answer.

The chorus He trusted in God,' in the Messiah, is a fine specimen of this sort of fugue, to which we refer the reader; for few are without that sublime oratorio in some form.

In the Free Fugue much more latitude is allowed the composer; he is not so restrained by the subject, but may introduce what Albrechtsberger terms episodes-passages not closely related to the theme, though they should never be very foreign to it. The overture to the Zauberflöte affords a splendid example of this species. The Double Fugue consists of two or more subjects, moving together, and dispersed among the different parts. Dom. Scarlatti's in D minor is a double fugue which has no superior of its kind. The first few bars of this will more clearly explain than words can do the nature of so elaborate a species of composition.

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Fugues of more than two subjects are classed, not very correctly, among double fugues; they are however rare, for which reason perhaps they have never received a distinguishing name. Of these the fugue of four subjects in the finale to Mozart's grand symphony in C, and that of the same description in Handel's Alexander's Feast, the chorus Let Old Timotheus yield the prize,' are master-pieces of their kind. All of this species must be considered as free fugues. The term Fugue by Inversion requires little explanation. In this the theme is inverted, as the name implies, but the effect arising out of such contrivance is appreciable only by those who know its difficulty, and estimate its merit by the quantity of labour it has cost. In the Fugue by Augmentation, the notes of the answer are doubled in length. In the Fugue by Diminution, exactly

the reverse takes place. There are also other kinds of Fugue, but they are now almost forgotten, and it would be waste of paper and print to revive their names.

Imitation is a species of fugue, and by theorists is generally treated on previously to and as the precursor of the latter. As the word indicates in this kind of composition, the theme is more or less imitated in the different parts. It is not, says Fux (Gradus ad Parnassum), required that every note should be imitated, but only some part of the subject; and Imitation is rather to take place in the middle than in the commencement of a composition. It may be made in any of the intervals, and in fact is governed by scarcely any rule. The learned contrapuntist just named gives the following as an example of Imitation in the Unison :—

f

-O

The effect of technical imitation in music is unquestionably | former territory of Fulda was one of the oldest ecclesiastical great; it is felt by all who have the slightest skill in the endowments in Germany, having been founded by Boniart, therefore employed by all great composers of every facius and his colleague Sturm, in the year 744; it ceased school, antient and modern. Canon, which is sometimes however to be under episcopal jurisdiction in 751, was recalled a perpetual fugue, may perhaps be admitted, though vived as a bishoprick in 1752, fell to the prince of Nassaucautiously, as part of a course of professional study, but should Orange as a secularized principality in 1803, was incorporarely, if ever, be allowed to pass the boundaries of the rated by Napoleon with the grand-duchy of Frankfort in school. [CANON.] Fugue, but not of the pedantic or fan- 1810, and in 1815, after being ceded to Prussia, was immetastic kind, should be an object of serious attention with diately afterwards made over to Hesse-Cassel. The soil is those who are ambitious of becoming great composers, not so rich as that of other parts of the electorate; the though in its severe form it ought to be almost confined to country is intersected by branches of the Rhön and Vogel cathedral music and to the oratorio, and is admissible there ranges, and watered by the Fulda, Kinzig, Werra, Haune, only when introduced with great discretion, and guided by and other rivers. It produces corn, flax, potatoes, and timthe hand of an experienced sensible master. But with-ber, in considerable quantities. The rearing of cattle is one out that which is here to be understood by the term imitation or the recurrence, in some shape, of the chief subject -music in parts, of even a very simple kind, loses one of its greatest beauties. Let it be used however with a view solely to effect: if resorted to for the mistaken purpose of displaying what a young or a dull composer may call his learning, imitation will prove to be nothing better than mere plodding, and capable of exciting no emotion except that which is the very reverse of pleasing.

FULCRUM. [LEVER.]
FULDA, river. [WESER.]

FULDA, a province of the electorate of Hesse-Cassel, between 50° and 51° N. lat., and 9° and 10° E. long., is bounded on the north-east by Saxe-Weimar, on the east and south-east by Bavaria, and on the west by the grandduchy of Hesse-Darmstadt. Its area is about 880 square miles, and its population about 126,600. It contains part of the former grand-duchy of Fulda (a considerable portion of it having been united to Bavaria in 1815), the principality of Hersfeld, and the seigniory of Schmalkalden. The

of the principal occupations of the inhabitants: among the mineral productions are brown coal, potter's clay, and small quantities of salt.

The province is divided into the circles of Hersfeld, Schmalkalden, Hünfeld, and Fulda, and contains five towns, seven market villages, and 198 other villages, together with about 17,200 houses. Besides Fulda, the chief town, the principal towns are Hersfeld, on the Fulda, and Geiss, a walled town, with a spacious market-place, a castle, 2 churches, about 670 houses and 6400 inhabitants, and manufactures of woollens, dimity, serges, and leather. Schmalkalden, on the Schmalkalde, surrounded by walls, with 3 suburbs, the 2 castles of Wilhelmsburg and Hessenhof, 2 churches, 2 gymnasia, and salt-works producing annually about 620 tons. The population is about 4850. Large quantities of iron and steel ware are made here, besides salt, stockings, white lead, arms, buttons, pipeheads of Meerschaum, woollen yarn, &c. This was the place where the Protestant princes of Germany formed a league for their mutual defence in 1531, after six great assemblies held here

between 1529 and 1540. The Schmalkald articles were also promulgated from this spot in 1537. Steinbach, a market village on the Hasel, with about 390 houses, and 2500 inhabitants, who manufacture iron-ware. Hünfeld on the Haune, a town with walls, 2 churches, about 280 houses, and 1800 inhabitants, with manufactures of linens, and some trade in yarns: and Brotterode, an irregularly built town, 1708 feet above the level of the sea, with about 350 houses, and 2100 inhabitants, and manufactures of tin, tobacco, brass and steel ware, &c.

FULDA, the capital of the province, and the seat of its government and law courts, is about 60 miles north-east of Frankfort on the Main, at an elevation of 834 feet above the level of the sea; in 50° 34' N. lat., and 9° 44′ E. long. It is built on the banks of the Fulda, which is crossed by a handsome stone bridge. Fulda is a pretty town, with eight suburbs outside its walls. The walls, which are decayed, have seven gates. Its population, which was 7468 in 1810, and 8150 in 1817, is at present about 9600; the houses are about 1100. It contains a market-place and two squares, one of which is a public promenade, with rows of linden trees, an electoral palace and grounds, eleven churches, one of which is Lutheran, a Roman Catholic Lyceum, which was instituted out of the funds of the university, founded in 1734, a Protestant high-school, a chapter seminary, a school in which forest economy is taught, and another for educating teachers, an hospital, public library, &c. It is the residence of the Roman Catholic bishop for the electorate, and has a handsome cathedral or minster, built between the years 1700 and 1712: it is memorable as the place of sepulture of St. Bonifacius, whose remains were deposited below an altar in an underground chapel in 755, the year of his death. The manufactures of Fulda are on a confined scale, and consist of linens, woollens, stockings, saltpetre, leather, articles in wood, &c. The mineral spring, on St. John's Hill near the town, resembles the Seltzer water. About five miles out of Fulda is the electoral country-seat called the Fasanerie, where there are valuable collections of paintings, china, and subjects in natural history. St. Bonifacius's Well, in the midst of some well laid out shrubberies, is also close to the town.

FULGENTIUS, FABIUS CLAUDIUS GORDIANUS, bishop of Ruspina, a town on the coast of Africa, was born about A.D. 464. His father Gordianus, who was a senator of Carthage, was obliged to leave his native city during the persecutions of the Vandals, and retired to Telepte, in the province of Byzacium, where Fulgentius passed the early years of his life. He is said to have made great progress in his studies, and to have acquired an accurate knowledge of the Greek and Latin languages. In consequence of his attainments, he was appointed at an early age to receive the public revenues of the province; but he resigned his office soon after his appointment, and retired to a monastery in the neighbourhood. After enduring many persecutions on account of his opposition to the Arian doctrines, he resolved to go into Egypt to visit the celebrated monks of that country. From this design he was dissuaded by Eualius, bishop of Syracuse, on the ground that the monks of the East had withdrawn from the Catholic communion, and accordingly he proceeded to Rome, A.D. 500. On his return to his native country, the Catholic clergy elected him bishop of Ruspina; but he did not enjoy his dignity long, being exiled to Sardinia, together with the other Catholic bishops of that part of Africa, by Thrasimond, king of the Vandals. His learning, his austere manner of living, and his frequent controversies with the Arians, procured him the universal respect of the Catholic clergy, who considered him the greatest ornament of the African church in that age. Curiosity led Thrasimond to recal him to Carthage, where he held disputes with the king on the debated points of the Arian controversy; but as he was unable to convince the monarch, he was obliged to return to Sardinia, where he remained till A.D. 522, when the death of Thrasimond and the succession of Hildericus to the throne occasioned the recal of the Catholic bishops. Fulgentius returned to Ruspina, and resided there till the time of his death, which happened either in A.D. 529 or 533.

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His works were printed at Paris, in a 4to. volume, in 1684. With regard to his style, Dupin remarks, that St. Fulgentius did not only follow the doctrine of St. Austin, but also imitated his style. He had a quick and subtle spirit, which easily comprehended things, set them in a

good light, and explained them copiously, which may appear unpleasant to those who read his works. He loved thorny and scholastic questions, and used them sometimes in mysteries. He knew well the holy Scriptures, and had read much the works of the fathers, particularly those of St. Austin.' His principal works are:-I. "Three Books to Thrasimond, king of the Vandals, on the Arian Controversy;' II. Three Books to Monimus.' The first supports the opinions of Augustine on the doctrine of predestination; the second explains the sacrifice of Christ and the passage in 1 Cor. vi., 6, But I speak this by permission, and not of commandment;' the third contains remarks on the Arian interpretation of John i, 1. The word was with God.' III. Two Books to Euthymius, on the Remission of Sins,' to show that God will pardon sins only in this life; IV.‘A Book to Donatus, on the Trinity;' V. Three Books on Predestination, to John, a priest, and Venerius, a deacon;' VI. A Book on Faith;' VII. Letters on various religious Subjects,' written principally during his exile.

(Dupin's Bibliothèque Ecclésiastique, vol. v., p. 13-21; Eng. Trans.; Acta Sanctorum, vol. i., Januar., p. 32.) FULGENTIUS FERRANDUS, who is frequently confounded with Fulgentius, bishop of Ruspina, lived in the beginning of the sixth century. He was a disciple of the bishop of Ruspina, whose life he wrote. He was also the author of an 'Abridgment of the Canons,' and finished a treatise addressed to Reginus, on which his master was engaged at the time of his death.

(Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History, vol. ii., p. 109: Eng. Trans., 1826.)

FULGENTIUS, FABIUS PLANCIADES, is said to have been a bishop of Carthage, and to have lived in the sixth century. He wrote a work on Mythology, in three books, addressed to a priest of the name of Catus, which was printed for the first time at Milan, in 1487. There is another work of Fulgentius, entitled 'Expositio Sermonuni Antiquorum ad Chalcidicum Grammaticum,' which is usually printed with the works of Nonius Marcellus.

(Fabricii, Bibliotheca Latina, lib. ii., c. 2.)

FULGURITES are vitrified sand tubes, supposed to have originated from the action of lightning; they are called by the Germans blitzröhre.

These tubes were discovered in the year 1711 by the pastor Herman, at Massel in Silesia; and they were again discovered in 1805 by Dr. Hentzen, in the heath of Paderborn, commonly called the Senne, and he first attributed their formation to the agency of lightning.

These tubes have since been found in great number at Pillau, near Königsberg, in Eastern Prussia; at Nietleben, near Halle on the Saale; at Drigg in Cumberland, and some other places.

At Drigg, the tubes were found in the middle of sandbanks forty feet high, and very near the sea. In the Senne they were most commonly found on the declivities of mounds of sand, about thirty feet high; but sometimes in cavities, which are stated to have been hollowed in the heath, in the form of bowls, 200 feet in circumference, and 12 to 15 feet in depth.

These tubes are nearly all hollow. At Drigg their external diameter was 24 inches; those of the Senne, reckoning from the surface, are from one quarter to seven lines internal diameter; but they narrow as they descend lower, and frequently terminate in a point: the thickness of the tube varies from half a line to one inch.

These tubes are usually placed vertically in the sand; but they have been found at an angle of 40°. Their entire length, judging from those which have been extracted, is from twenty to thirty feet; but frequent tranverse fissures divide them into portions from half an inch to five inches in length.

Usually there is only one tube found at a place; sometimes however, at a certain depth, this tube divides into two or three branches, each of which gives rise to small lateral branches, from an inch to a foot in length; these are conical, and terminate in points, inclining gradually to the bottom.

The internal part of the tubes is a perfect glass, smooth and very brilliant, resembling hyalite. It scratches glass, and gives fire with steel. All the tubes, whatever may be their form, are surrounded by a crust composed of agglutinated grains of quartz, which have the appearance, wien examined by a glass, of having undergone incipient fusion.

The colour of the internal mass of the tubes, and especially that of the external parts, depends upon the na

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