G.

the beginning of words, when an r or follows, as in the olic forms, γλεφαρον, γλήχων, γαλανος, in place of Begapov, Bλnxwv, Baλavos. Hence the Latin glans. So the Turks have given to Prussia the name of Gharandaberk, e. Brandenburg.

G. This letter is derived from the Latin alphabet, in which
it first appears. In the Greek alphabet its place is sup-
plied by zeta. If, as seems probable, the sound of this
Greek letter was the same as the consonantal sound at the
beginning of the word judge (see Z), it may perhaps bei.
inferred that the hissing sound now given to the letter g
existed already in some dialect of antient Italy. The sound
at any rate is familiar to the modern Italian. The sound of
the letter g in the English language is two-fold. Before a, o,
and u, and occasionally before i and e, it is the medial letter
of the guttural order. The other sound, which it possesses
only before and e, is one of the medials of the sibilant
series, and is also represented by the letter j as pronounced
by the English. [ALPHABET, p. 379.] The sibilant sound
is written in Italian by two letters, gi, as Giacomo, Jacob, or
by gg, as oggi, to-day. The two-fold nature of the sound
corresponds to the double sound of the letter c, which is
sometimes a k, sometimes ans [See C.]

The guttural g is liable to many changes in different dialects or languages.

1. g and are convertible. Thus the Greek and Latin forms genu, yovu; 'gen, yev, as seen in gen,us, yes, gi,g(e),o, yŸ(ε)voμar; gno, yvw, as seen in gno,sco, yok; severally correspond to the German and English knie, knee; kind, kin; kennen, know. "

2. g and an aspirated guttural: as, Greek, xny; German, gans; English, goose and gander. Perhaps you may be related to the German gaffen and English gape. There can be no doubt as to the connexion between the Greek yog, the Latin hes-ternus, and the German ges-tern. The close connexion of the two sounds may also be seen in the pronunciation of the final g in high German like ch, as Ludwig, &c.

เส

3. g and h. As the letter h, when pronounced at all, is only a weak aspirate, this interchange strictly belongs to the last head. As an additional example, we may refer to the Latin word gallus, which has all the appearance of being a diminutive, like bellus, ullus, asellus, from benus, unus, asinus. If this be admitted, the primitive was proDably ganus; and we see its corresponding form in the German hahn, a cock.

4. g often disappears: First, at the beginning of a word, as in the Latin anser, a goose, compared with the forms given above, and in the English enough compared with the German genug. A large number of examples of this may be seen in the poetical participles of the English language, commencing with a y, as yclept, yclad, &c.; also in ago for agone; in all of which the fuller form began with ge, as is still seen in German. The loss of g is particularly common before and n, as Eng. like, Germ. gleich; Lat. nosco, nascor, from gnosco, gnascor. Secondly, in the middle of words between vowels. This may be seen in French words derived from the Latin, as: legere, lire, read; magister, maistre, master; Ligeris, Loire, &c.; also in English words connected with German, as, nagel, nail; segel, sail; regen, rain, &c. In such cases vowel is generally lengthened. Lastly, at the end of words, as, sag-en, say; mag, may; tag, day: here again the syllable is strengthened.

the

5. g and y are convertible: as, yester-day, compared with the Germ. gestern; yawn with gähnen; yellow with gelb. In our own language we find related words showing this difference: yard and garden; yate, a dialectic variety of gate; yave for gave (Percy's Reliques, i., p. 294, note); and yode, a perfect of to go (Glossary of same).

6. g with gu and w. In the Latin language there co-exist the forms tinguo, tingo; unguo, ungo; urgueo, urgeo, &c. In the French language gu is presented to the eye, but g to the ear, in the following: guerre, guêpe, guarder, &c.; while in English we have war, wasp, ward or guard. Under this head it may be observed, first, that a final w in the English language often corresponds to a guttural in other Teutonic dialects, as saw, raw, crow, row, maw, &c.; secondly, that we often have two letters, ow, where the German has a guttural g, as follow, sorrow, morrow, furrow, gallows, marrow, borrow, barrow.

7. g and b. This is generally confined to those cases at

8. g and d : as δη-μητηρ for γη-μητηρ. Examples of this interchange may be heard from the mouth of nearly every child in its first attempts to speak, as Dy Flot for Guy Fawkes, dood boy, do away, &c. This change, as in the last case, is common before 7; hence the Latin dulcis by the side of the Greek yλukuç.

9. The guttural g and the sibilant g. It was stated in C that the hard sound of that letter in the Western languages of Europe often corresponded to a hissing sound in the Eastern. So too the hard g belongs to Europe, the j sound to Asia. Thus reg, a king, is in the East rajah.

10. The sibilant g and di or bi before a vowel. For examples see D and B.

11. g appears to attach itself to the letter r at the end of roots: as, mergo, spargo, compared respectively with the Latin mare and the Greek pw. This outgrowth corresponds to the addition of d at the end of roots ending in n. [See D.] The two liquids take as an addition the medial consonants of their own order, the dental n preferring the dental d, while r takes to it the guttural g.

G (in music), the fifth note or degree of the diatonic scale, answering to the sol of the Italians and French. It is also a name of the treble clef. [CLEF.]

GABION, a hollow cylinder of wicker-work, resembling a basket, but having no bottom. It is formed by planting slender stakes vertically in the ground, at intervals from each other on the circumference of a circle, and interweaving with them osiers or other flexible twigs.

The most usual kind of gabion is about 20 inches in diameter, and 2 feet 9 inches in height, but the stakes, whose extremities are pointed, project beyond the basketwork about 3 or 4 inches at each end. The lower ends of the stakes, by entering the ground, serve to keep the gabion in its place when set up; and as it is usual to increase the height of a row of gabions by placing along their tops a triple line of fascines, the upper ends of the stakes retain the fascines in their places by entering between the rods.

Such gabions are used during a siege in executing trenches by the process of sapping: for this purpose they are placed on end, with their sides inclining a little outwards, on that side of the line of approach which is nearest to the fortress; and, being filled with earth obtained by the excavation of the trench, they form a protection against the fire of the enemy. After the gabions are filled, the required thickness is given to the parapet of the trench by throwing the earth beyond the line.

Gabions of the same kind are sometimes used to form a revetment for the interior of the epaulement of a battery; being then placed on end in two or more horizontal rows, one above the other, and leaning against the mass of earth. Four or five gabions line each side or cheek of the embrasure at the neck or interior extremity of the latter.

What is called a sap-roller consists of a gabion placed within a larger one, so that their axes are coincident; each is about 6 feet long, but the diameter of the exterior gabion is 4 feet, and that of the other 2 feet 9 inches, and the interval between the two is filled with brushwood or any light material by which the whole may be rendered musket-proof. This is used to cover the sappers in front, while employed in excavating the approaches near the fortress, being rolled forward as the work advances.

It has been recommended to place a row of small gabions, in the form of frustums of cones, along the crest of a parapet, in order to cover the heads of the defenders: bags of earth are usually employed for this purpose; but if gabions should be preferred, their large ends must be placed upwards, so as to leave between every two at bottom a loophole for musketry

A gabionnade is any lodgment consisting of a parapet hastily formed by placing on the ground a row of gabions, and filling them with earth obtained by digging a trench parallel to the line, in their rear

GABRES. (GUEBRES.] GADEBUSCH, FREDERIC CONRAD, a learned German, born in 1719, in the island of Rugen. After having studied at different universities of Germany, he went, in 1750, to Livonia, where he remained till his death in 1788. He was a very laborious writer, and left several works in German, which throw considerable light on the history of the Baltic provinces of Russia. His principal works are: Memoir on the Historians of Livonia,' Riga, 1772; 'Livonian_Bibliotheca,' Riga, 1779; 'Essays on the History and Laws of Livonia, Riga, 1777-1785; Annals of Livonia, from 1030 to 1761,' 8 vols. in 8vo., Riga, 1780-1783. GADES. [CADIZ.]

GADFLY. [ESTRIDE.]
GADIDÆ, a family of fishes of which the common cod-
fish may serve as the type. [ABDOMINALES; MALACOP-
TERYGII.]

the same word. Of Gael, taken by itself and assumed to be
different from Celt, it cannot be said that anything has been
made; all the derivations suggested are puerile. On the
assumption that it is the same with Celt, it has been found
perhaps somewhat less intractable; but this cannot be re-
ceived as a proof that that assumption is correct. The most
probable account of Celt is that which connects it with the
Gaelic Canill, a wood-perhaps the same with the Greek
Kulon (Káλov) wood-whence Caoiltich, a people inhabiting
a woody country. This is also the origin commonly assigned
to the name Caledonii; which is supposed to be Cavildaoine,
literallywood-people,' or people of the woods. The inquiry
into the meaning of the word Gael has been greatly em-
barrassed by its similarity to another word still used in the
Gaelic both of Scotland and Ireland, and which curiously
enough seems to have the very opposite meaning to Gael.
Thus, while the Scottish Highlanders call themselves Gael,
they call all the rest of the Scotch, who do not speak Gaelic,
by the name of Gaoill, or in the singular Gaoll, which they
understand to mean strangers or foreigners. Thus Gaoll-
doch is the country of the Scots who speak English; Gael-
doch, the country of the Highlanders who speak Gaelic. In
the same manner Gall is the Irish term for a stranger, or
one speaking a different language; but it is very remark-
in his late History of Ireland' (i. 3) as a proof that the Irish
do not consider themselves as being of Gaulish origin, while
he must have known that they at the same time call them-
selves Gael-a fact however to which he has not, as far as
we can find, adverted in any part of his work. Then, after
all, comes to be considered the possible connection between
either Gael or Gaoll and the Wealh of the Anglo-Saxons,
whence our modern Welsh and Wales, and which seems to
be the same with the Wälsh, applied generally to foreigners
by the modern Germans. Were the Cymry called Wealh by
the Saxons (whence the French have made Galles, as we
have made Welsh) because they were considered to be Gael or
Gauls, or because they were held to be strangers, foreigners,
aliens ?—or is it possible that the two words which appear
in the modern Gaelic and Irish in the slightly distinguish-
able forms of Gael and Gaoll or Gall, notwithstanding their
apparently opposite significations, may after all be only dif-
ferent forms of the same word?

GAEL, GAELIC. Although the language spoken by the Scottish Highlanders is familiarly known among the Lowlanders by the name of the Erse, or, according to the more usual pronunciation, the Ersh, that is, plainly, the Eirish or Irish, the people themselves are never called by that name. Among the Highlanders the name Erse is unknown, either as that of the nation or of the language. They call themselves only the Gadhel, also sometimes writ-able that this fact should have been advanced by Mr. Moore ten and always pronounced Gael, and their language the Gaedheilg, pronounced Gaeilg, or, nearly Gaelic. The name Gaelic is also in familiar use among the Lowlanders as that of the language. Further, the only name by which the Irish are known to the Scottish Highlanders is Gael; the latter call themselves Gael Albinnich, or the Gael of Albin, and the Irish Gael Erinnich, or the Gael of Erin. The Irish also call themselves the Gadhel, or Gael, and their language the Gaelic. Finally, the Welsh call the Irish Gwyddel, which is evidently the same word with Gadhel, or Gael.

This is nearly all that can be stated as matter of fact in regard to the name Gael. The rest is all speculation and conjecture of that, however, few words have given rise to so much. We shall not here attempt to do more than to indicate and arrange the various points as to which many volumes of philological and historical controversy have been written.

1. It has been generally assumed and admitted that the modern Gael are a portion of the Galli, or Gauls, of antiquity, the people who gave its former name to the country now called France, and who were principally, though by no means exclusively, known to the Greeks and Romans as the inhabitants of that region. Although however this opinion has been commonly adopted, the grounds upon which it has been taken up do not appear to be very conclusive. They are principally the similarity of the two names-some historical and traditional testimony to the fact that South Britain was originally peopled from Gaul-related to what have been called the Indo-Germanic lansome traces, rather faint and disputable, of identity of institutions and customs-and what would be the strongest argument, if it were well made out, the evidences of identity of language conceived to be established by the comparison of the names of places in France, and a few other remains of the old language spoken there, with the modern Gaelic of Scotland and Ireland. But the supposition is not unattended with difficulties, and if adopted it does not clear up the question of how the Gauls got either to Scotland or to Ireland. 2. Supposing the Gael to be the Galli of the Roman writers, and the Galatai (ráλarai) of the Greeks, a question arises as to whether these names are the same with the Celta or Celti, or Keltai (Keλrai), sometimes spoken of by the antients as a general name for the Gauls, sometimes as the name of only a certain portion of the Gauls. [CELTE.] And if the Gauls and the Celts were distinct names, it remains to be settled which was the general name of the nation, and which the name only of the division or tribe. Several antient writers have represented the Celts to be the most antient name of the nation, and the Gauls to be a name substituted at a comparatively late period; but it has been contended in modern times on very plausible grounds that this notion is a mistake, and that the Celts were only a section of the Gauls, which was always the generic name.

3. Then there has been a world of controversy about the origin and meaning of both Gael and Celt (antiently, it is to be remembered, pronounced Kelt); the confusion here again being increased by the difference of opinion as to whether these are different words or only different forms of

4. The last class of disputed points we shall mention are those arising out of the history of the various nations and languages which are either Gaelic, or have by some been assumed to be Gaelic. What was the real amount of the connection or distinction between the antient Gauls and Germans? In what relation to either stood the Iberians? in what the Celtiberians? in what the Aquitanians? Were the Cimbri Gauls or Germans? Were the Belga Gauls or Germans? Whether or in what degree is the Gaelic tongue guages? Is there any connection, and to what amount, between the Gaelic and the Semitic languages? These are the principal questions that have been agitated with regard to the Gael or supposed Gael of the antient world. Their modern history has afforded fully as many more. Was Britain originally peopled by a Gallic or Germanic race? Were the Picts Gauls or Germans? Were the Caledonians Gauls or Germans? Were the more recentlysettled colonists whom Cæsar found in the South of Britain of Gallic or Germanic stock, and did they speak a Gaelic or Teutonic language? What is the degree of affinity between the Welsh tongue and that spoken by the native Irish and the Highlanders of Scotland? Is it a dialect of the same tongue, or (as has lately been strenuously maintained) a language of altogether a distinct family? Is the Basque a Celtic dialect? Whence came the Irish, supposing them to be Gael-from India? or Persia? or Phoenicia? or Spain? or France? or England? or Scotland? Were the Scots or Milesians of Ireland a Gallic or Germanic people? What is the origin of the present Highlanders of Scotland? Are they the progeny of a comparatively recent Irish colonization, as has of late been generally agreed, and as their own traditions have always asserted? or are they the descendants of the antient Caledonians, assumed on that supposition to be Gauls, and to have been the original population of the whole island, who were, probably a short time before the commencement of the Christian æra, driven from South to North Britain before a new immigration from the continent? All or most of these may be considered as questions still doubtful and disputed.

the celebrated German historian Hegewisch, who himself wrote a history of Charlemagne in German. The best work of Gaillard is his History of the Rivalry between France and England,' of which the first three volumes appeared in 1771, the four following in 1774, and the four concluding volumes in 1777. This work embraces not only the political and military relations between the two countries, but also the internal history of both, so arranged as to present a constant parallelism. His 'History of the Rivalry between France and Spain,' 8 vols. in 12mo., a work highly appreciated in France, is written on the same plan. Gaillard was the author of the Historical Dictionary' in the 'Encyclopédie Méthodique,' 6 vols. in 4to., and many other minor works, the most valuable of which are a 'Life of Malesherbes,' his personal friend, 1805, 1 vol. 8vo.; and 'Observations on the History of France,' by Velly, Villaret, and Garnier, 4 vols. 12mo, 1806. Gaillard died in 1806, in consequence of his severe application. His moral character stood very high.

GAINSBOROUGH, an antient market-town and parish situated on the eastern bank of the Trent, in the county of Lincoln, 149 miles N. by W. from London. Gainsborough is noted as being the place where the Danes anchored at the period when the surrounding country was devastated by their sanguinary tyrant Sweyne, and where he was stabbed by an unknown hand when on the point of re-embarking, It is also the birth-place of Simon Patrick, the learned and pious bishop of Ely, who died in 1707. The town is well paved and lighted, and consists principally of one street running parallel to the river, which is here crossed by a fine stone bridge of three elliptical arches. The townhall, wherein the sessions were formerly held, is a substantial brick building, beneath which is the gaol. The living is a vicarage in the diocese of Lincoln, and in the patronage of the bishop of that see, with an annual net income of 5297. Gainsborough is advantageously situated both for foreign and inland trade. By means of the Trent, which falls into the Humber about 20 miles below the town, vessels of 200 tons are enabled to come up to the wharfs, and by the Readley, Chesterfield, and other canals a communication is kept up with the interior of the country. The market-day is Tuesday, and the fairs for cattle, &c. are held on EasterTuesday and the 20th of October. In 1831 the entire parish, including the hamlets of Morton, East Stockwith, and Walkerith, contained 7535 inhabitants. There is a charity school at which the children of the poor are taught reading, writing, and the elements of arithmetic.

be called fancy-pieces, such as the celebrated Cottage
Door,' now in the collection of the Marquis of Westminster.
There is however a wonderful difference between his early
and his later performances. In the former every feature is
copied from nature in its greatest detail, and yet without
stiffness; so that they look like nature itself reflected in a
convex mirror. In his latter works striking effect, great
breadth, and judicious distribution of light and shade, pro-
duce a grand and even a solemn impression. Both have
their admirers, as tastes differ; but though he may not
deserve to be ranked as some would have him, with Van-
dyck, Rubens, and Claude, in portrait and in landscape, all
will assent to the opinion of Sir Joshua Reynolds- that
if ever this nation should produce genius sufficient to ac-
quire to us the honourable distinction of an English school,
the name of Gainsborough will be transmitted to posterity
as one of the very first of that rising name.'
Gainsborough died of a cancer in the neck, in August,
1788, in the sixty-first year of his age.

GAIUS, or CAIUS, one of the Roman classical jurists whose works entitle him to a place among the great writers on law, such as Papinian, Paulus, and Ulpian. Nothing is known of the personal history of Gaius beyond the probable fact that he wrote under Antoninus Pius and Aurelius. His works were largely used in the compilation of the 'Digest,' or 'Pandect,' which contains extracts from the writings of Gaius under the following titles:- Res Cottidiana sive Aureorum,' (Dig. xl. 9, 10, &c.); 'De Casibus,' (xii. 6, 63, &c.); Ad Edictum Ædilium Curulium,' (xxi. 1, 18, &c.); Liber ad Edictum Prætoris Urbani,' xl. 12, 6, &c.); Ad Edictum Provinciale,' (xiv. 4, 9, &c.), which consisted of thirty books at least; Fidei Commissorum,' (xxxii. 1, 14, &c.); Formula Hypothecaria,' (xx. 1, 4, &ç.); Institutiones,' (i. 6, 1, &c.); ‘De Verborum Obligationibus,' (xlvi. 1, 70). There are also extracts from several other works of Gaius in the Pandect.'

The 'Institutions' of Gaius were probably the earliest attempt to present a sketch of the Roman law in the form of an elementary text-book. This work continued in general use till the compilation of the 'Institutions' which bear the name of Justinian, and which were not only mainly based on the Institutions' of Gaius, but, like this earlier work, were divided into four books, with the same general distribution of the subject matter as that adopted by Gaius.

The Institutions' of Gaius appear to have been neglected after the promulgation of Justinian's compilation, and were finally lost. All that remained was the detached pieces collected in the 'Digest,' and what could be gathered from the Breviarium Alaricianum,' as the code of the Visigoths is sometimes called. But in 1816, Niebuhr discovered a MS. in the library of the chapter of Verona, which he ascertained to be a treatise on Roman law, and which Savigny, founding his opinion on the specimen published by Niebuhr, conjectured to be the Institutions' of Gaius.

GAINSBOROUGH, THOMAS, born in 1727, at Sudbury, in Suffolk, was one of the most eminent English landscape painters of the last century. His father being a person in narrow circumstances, the education which his son received was very scanty; and it is probable enough that in his boyish days he passed much less time at school than in the woods of Suffolk, where he acquired that relish for the beauties of quiet nature and that intimate acquaint- This conjecture of Savigny was soon fully confirmed, ance with them for which his early pictures are so peculiarly though the MS. has no author's name on it. Goeschen, distinguished. Having almost from his childhood amused Bekker, and Hollweg undertook to examine and copy this himself with sketching any object that struck his fancy, MS., an edition of which appeared at Berlin in 1820, edited an old tree, a group of cattle, a shepherd and his dog, &c., by Goeschen. To form some idea of the labour necessary he ventured on colouring, and had painted several land- to decipher this MS., and of the patient perseverance of the scapes before he was twelve years of age, when he was sent to scholars who undertook this formidable task, the reader London. There he was for some time with Mr. Gravelot, must refer to the report of Goeschen to the Academy of the engraver, and Hayman, the painter, with whom he did Berlin, November 6, 1817. The MS. consists of one hunnot remain long, but setting up as a portrait-painter, sup- dred and twenty-seven sheets of parchment, the original ported himself, till, at the age of nineteen, he married a writing on which was the four books of the 'Institutions' of young lady who had a fortune of 2007. per annum. On his Gaius. This original writing had on some pages been marriage he went to Ipswich, where he resided till 1758, washed out, so far as was practicable, and on others when he removed to Bath. Having practised portrait- scratched out; and the whole, with the exception of two painting with increasing success, he removed in 1774 to sheets, had been re-written with the epistles of St. Jerome. London; and having painted portraits of some of the royal The lines of the original and of the substituted writing run family, which were much admired, he soon acquired ex- in the same direction, and often cover one another; a cirtensive practice and proportionate emolument. But though cumstance which considerably increased the difficulty of decihis portraits were much valued at the time as striking like-phering the text of Gaius. In addition to this, sixty-three nesses, this was too frequently their only merit: they were often painted in a rough careless manner, in a style of hatching and scumbling entirely his own, producing indeed an effect at a distance, but undetermined and indistinet when viewed near. At times he would take more pains, and show what he could do. But Gainsborough, in fact, considered this loose manner as peculiarly excellent, and was desirous that his pictures in the Exhibition might be so hung as to be within reach of close inspection. With painters his fame rests on his landscapes, and what might

pages had been written on three times: the first writing was the text of Gaius, which had been erased; and the second, which was a theological work, had shared the same fate, to make room for the epistles of St. Jerome.

A second examination of this MS. was made by Bluhme (Præfatio Nova Editionis), and a new edition of the Institutions' was published by Goeschen, at Berlin, in 1824, which presents us with an exact copy of the MS. with all its deficiencies, and contains a most copious list of the abbreviations used by the copyist of Gaius.