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The discovery of a work, the loss of which had so long been regretted, produced a most lively sensation among continental jurists, and called forth a great number of essays. In England it has yet attracted little attention beyond a superficial notice in the Edinburgh Review' (vol. xlviii., p. 385), and an occasional allusion to it elsewhere, though it is undoubtedly one of the most valuable additions that have been made in modern times to our knowledge of Roman Law. The fourth book of the Institutions' is particularly useful for the information which it contains on actions and the forms of procedure. The style of Gaius, like that of all the classical Roman jurists, is perspicuous and yet concise.

One of the most useful editions of Gaius is that by Klenze and Böcking (Berlin, 1029), which contains the 'Institutions' of Gaius and Justinian, so arranged as to present a parallelism, and to furnish a proof, if any were yet wanting, that the MS. of Verona is the genuine work of Gaius.

In addition to the references already made, the reader may consult an ingenious essay by Goeschen on the Res Quotidianæ,' of Gaius (Zeitschrift für Geschichtliche Rechtswissenschaft, Berlin, 1815); Hugo, 'Lehrbuch der Geschichte des Römischen Rechts;' Dupont, Disquisit. in Commentarium iv. Instit. Gaii,' &c., Lugd. Bat. 1822. GALACZ. [MOLDAVIA.] GALA'GO. LEMURIDE.]

GALANGA, or GALANGAL, is usually supposed to have been introduced by the Arabs, but it was previously mentioned by Ætius. The Arabs call it Kholingan, which appears to be derived from the Hindu Koolinjan, or Sanscrit Koolunjuna, indicating the country whence they derived the root, as well as the people from whom they obtained their information respecting its uses. The plant which yielded this root was long unknown, and it was supposed to be that of a pepper, of an iris, of Acorus Calamus, or to be the Acorus of the antients. Kampferia Galanga was so called from its aromatic roots being supposed to be the true Galangal. The tubers of Cyperus longus were sometimes substituted, and called English Galangal. Two kinds, the large and the small galangal, are described; these are usually considered to be derived from the same plant at different stages of its growth, but Dr. Ainslie, in his 'Materia Indica,' insists upon the greater value of the lesser, as this is warmer and more fragrant, and therefore highly prized in India. It is a native of China, and the plant producing it is unknown. Dr. Ainslie does not prove that it is the Galanga minor of Europe.

habits the Asiatic provinces of the Russian and Turkish empires.

GALAPAGOS are a group of islands in the Pacific, about 700 miles from the continent of South America, near the equator. They lie between 1° N. lat. and 2 S. lat., and between 89° and 92° W. long., and consist of six larger and seven smaller islands. The largest is Albemarle Island, which is 60 miles in length, and about 15 broad. The highest part is 4000 feet above the sea. Charles Island, now called La Floriana, is 20 miles long from north to south, and about 15 miles wide.

There are few islands in the world whose volcanic origin is more incontestable than that of the Galapagos. They consist of enormous masses of lava, rising abruptly from a fathomless sea. Along the shores nothing but black dismal-looking heaps of broken lava meet the eye; but in the interior, valleys and plains of moderate extent occur, which are covered with shrubs and that kind of cactus which is called prickly pear. This cactus supplies with food the land tortoises, which are called the great elephant-tortoises, their feet being like those of a small elephant. These animals grow to an enormous size, and frequently weigh 300 or 400 pounds. There are also iguanas and innumerable crabs. Pigeons also abound.

The climate is not so hot as would be expected from the geographical position of the islands, which is partly to be ascribed to the elevation of their surface (the settlement on La Floriana being 1000 feet above the level of the sea), and partly to the cold current which sets along the southsouth-western side of the group to the north-north-west. The dry season occurs in our summer, when most of the water pools dry up; but at the setting-in of the rains, in November, they are again filled. Between May and December the thermometer ranges between 52° and 74°, and from January to May between 74° and 1°. Captain Hall found that it rose to 93°, but this may have been the effect of local circumstances.

These islands were long considered as sterile rocks, and were first visited towards the end of the last century by the whalers of the Pacific Ocean, especially for the elephanttortoises, which were caught in great number, and served the crews for fresh provisions. In 1832 a settlement was formed by one Bilamil, an inhabitant of Guayaquil, who obtained a grant of the island of La Floriana from the government of Ecuador. The inhabitants cultivate bananas, sugar-cane, sweet potatoes, and Indian corn in such quantities, that they can provide with these articles the whalers, who frequently resort to the island. (Captain Basil Hall's. Extracts from a Journal, &c.; London Geographical Journal, vol. vi.; Reynolds's Voyage of the U. S. frigate Potomac, &c.)

The greater Galangal has long been known to be the produce of a Scitamineous plant, the Galanga major of Rumphius (Herb. Amb. 5. t. 63), which is the Alpinia Galanga of Wildenow, and a native of China and the Malayan Archipelago. It is fully described by Dr. Roxburgh, in GALATHE'A (Zoology), GALATHEA-TRIBE, GALAhis Flora Indica, vol. i. p. 28, ed. Wall. The roots, peren-THEIDÆ, a group of Crustaceans corresponding with the nial and tuberous, like those of the ginger, were ascer- genus Galathea of Fabricius, and establishing, in the opinion tained by Sir Joseph Banks and Dr. Comb to be identical of M. Milne Edwards, a passage between the Anomurous with the Galanga major of the shops. This is cylindrical, and Macrurous Crustaceans, being more particularly apoften forked, thick as the thumb, reddish brown externally, proximated to the Porcellana. [PORCELLANIDE.] Dr. Leach marked with whitish circular rings, internally lighter co- divided the genus established by Fabricius into four: viz. loured, of an agreeable aromatic smell, and a hot spicy the true Galatheæ, Munidea, Grimothea, and Eglea. M. taste, like a mixture of pepper and ginger, with some bit- Milne Edwards thinks that three of these genera should be terness. The stem is perennial, or at least more durable preserved, but agrees with M. Desmarest in coming to the than those of herbaceous plants; when in flower, about six conclusion that the genus Munidea has not sufficient chaor seven feet in length; its lower half invested by leafless racteristics to admit of its adoption in a natural classificasheaths. The leaves are two-ranked, lanceolar, from twelve tion. With regard to Eglea, M. Milne Edwards considers to twenty-four inches long, and from four to six broad. it as approximating more to the Porcellance than to the GaPanicle terminal, crowned with numerous branches, each lathea, and as occupying a place in the section of the Anosupporting from two to five pale greenish-white and somewhat fragrant flowers in April and May in Calcutta, where the seeds ripen, though rarely, in November.

Several species of this genus have roots with somewhat similar properties. Thus Alpinia alba and Chinensis are much used by the Malays and Chinese; the former has hence been called Galanga alba of Koenig; and the latter has an aromatic root with an acrid burning flavour. The fragrant root of A. nutans is sometimes brought to England, according to Dr. Roxburgh, for Galanga major. Its leaves, when bruised, have a strong smell of cardamums, and the Cardamomum plant is frequently placed in this genus, but has been described under ELETTARIA.

mura.

The Galatheid, then, according to the revision of M. Milne Edwards, are thus distinguished. Carapace depressed and wide, but still longer than its width, terminating anteriorly by a rostrum more or less projecting, which covers the place of the ocular peduncles, and presents on its upper surface many furrows or wrinkles, among which, one deeper than the rest defines the posterior part of the stomachic region. Antennæ inserted on the same transversal line; internal antennæ but little elongated, placed under the ocular peduncles, and terminated by two small, multiarticulate, very short filaments; external antennæ with no trace of palpiform appendages at their base, but with a GALANTHUS, a genus of Amaryllidaceous plants con- cylindrical peduncle and a long and slender terminal filasisting of the Snowdrop and another species. The former ment. External Jaw-feet (pates-mâchoires) always pediplant is a native of subalpine woods in various parts of Eu- form, but varying a little in their conformation. Sternal rope; the second, which is the G. plicatus of botanists, in-plate (plastron sternal) widening a good deal posteriorly,

F 2

and the last thoracic ring ordinarily distinct. Anterior feet large and terminated by a well formed claw; those of the three following pairs of limbs rather stout, and terminated by a conical tarsus; fifth pair very slender, and folded above the others in the branchial cavity; these last do not assist the locomotion, and are terminated by a rudimentary hand. Abdomen nearly as wide as the thorax, and longer, vaulted above and armed on each side with a row of four or five large teeth formed by the lateral angle of the superior arch of the different rings composing it, and terminated, as in the greater part of the Macrurous Crustaceans, with a large fan-shaped lamelliform fin. The number of abdominal false feet varies; in the male there are five pairs, the two first of which are slender and elongated, and the three last are terminated by an oval lamina ciliated on the edge; in the female, the first abdominal ring is without appendages, but the four following segments have each a pair of false feet composed of three joints placed end to end and fringed with hairs for the attachment of the eggs.

Genera. Galathea.

Generic Character.-The whole surface of the Carapace covered with transverse furrows fringed with small brushlike hairs. Hepatic regions, in general, well distinguished from the branchial, and occupying with the stomachic region nearly half of the space of the Carapace. Rostrum projecting and spiny; eyes large and directed downwards; no trace of an orbit. A spine above the insertion of the external antennæ, and two others on the anterior part of the stomachic region. Basilary joint of the internal antenna lindrical and armed at its anterior extremity with many strong spines; the two following joints slender and nearly as long as the first. Peduncle of the external antennæ composed of three small cylindrical joints, the last of which is much smaller than the others. External Jaw-feet modorate, the two last joints neither foliaceous nor even enlanged. Anterior feet long and depressed. (Milne Edwards.)

*

Species whose external jaw-feet present a row of teeth on the internal edge of their second joint.

α

Third joint of the external jaw-feet shorter than the second.

Example, Galathea strigosa; Galathea spinigera, Leach; Cancer strigosus, Linn. Description.-Rostrum triangular and armed with seven strong projecting spiniform teeth. "Lateral edges of the carapace with strong spiniform teeth.

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Glathea strigom.

Three long spines at the anterior extremity of the first joint of the external antennæ; a great spine under the auditory tubercle, two smaller ones on the first joint of the external antennæ, and one on their second joint. External jaw-feet short, hardly overpassing the rostrum when they are extended, their third joint much shorter than the second, and armed beneath with two strong spines. Anterior feet long, depressed, and very spiny; the hand very large, edged with spines and ornamented above with small piliferous furrows resembling imbricated scales, claws short, large and with a spoon-shaped termination. Feet of the second and third pair of the same length. Abdomen furrowed transversely, but without a spine; the seventh segment a little widened and rather narrower behind than before. Colour reddish, with some blue lines on the carapace. Length about five inches Locality, the Mediterranean and the Ocean.

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Third joint of the external jaw-feet much longer
than the second.
Example, Galathea squamifera Locality, the coasts of
England and France.

Species whose external jaw-feet have no dentilation on
the internal edge of their second joint.
Example, Galathea Monodon. Locality, the coasts of
Chile.
Grimothea.

Differing but little from Galathea, and hardly sufficiently
distinct for separation. General form of both essentially
the same, but the basilary joint of their internal antennæ
is claviform and hardly dentated at its extremity, and the
external jaw-feet are very long and have their three last
joints enlarged and foliaceous. (Milne Edwards.)
Example, Grimothea gregaria.

M. Milne Edwards observes that the Crustacean figured by M. Guérin under the name of Grimothée sociale (Voyage of La Coquille:' Crust., pl. 3. fig. 1) differs from G. gregaria in the form of the caudal fin, the middle lamina of which is less than the lateral ones. M. Edwards proposes therefore to name it Grimothea Duperreii in honour of the navigator whose voyage made the species known.

N.B. The student should bear in mind that the term Galathea was employed by Bruguières (who died in 1799) to distinguish a genus of Conchifers which M. Rang thinks might as well perhaps be united to Cyrena.

M. Desmarest is of opinion that M. Risso's genus Calypso, afterwards, according to M. Desmarest, named by M. Risso Janira (a designation allotted by Dr. Leach to a genus of Isopoda), approximates closely to Galathea.

GALATIA, a country of Asia Minor, which originally formed part of Phrygia and Cappadocia. It is difficult to determine its exact boundaries, as they differed at various times. It was bounded on the south by Phrygia and Cappadocia, on the east by Pontus, on the north by Paphlagonia, and on the west by Bithynia. It obtained the name of Galatia from the settlement of a large body of Gauls in this part of Asia. The first horde that appeared in Asia (B.C. 279) formed part of the army with which Brennus invaded Greece. In consequence of some dissensions in the army of Brennus, a considerable number of his troops, under the command of Leonorius and Lutarius, left their countrymen and marched into Thrace; thence they proceeded to Byzantium, and no crossed over into Asia at the invitation of Nicomedes king of Bithynia, who was anxious to secure their assistance end Magainst his brother Ziboetas. (Livy, xxxviii. 16.) With their aid Nicomedes was successful; but his allies now became his masters, and he, as well as the other monarchs of Asia M Minor to the west of Mount Taurus, was exposed for many years to the ravages of these barbarians, and obliged to purchase safety by the payment of tribute. Encouraged by the success of their countrymen, fresh hordes passed over into Asia, and their numbers became so great that Justin informs us (xxv. 2) "that all Asia swarmed with them; and parallels that no Eastern monarchs carried on war without a merce

nary army of Gauls." In conformity with this statement, we read of their assisting Ariobarzanes and Mithridates, kings of Pontus (about B.C. 266), against Ptolemy king of Egypt (Clinton's Fasti Hellenici, vol. iii. p. 424), and of their supporting Antiochus Hierax in his ambitious wars against his brother Seleucus Callinicus (Seleucus reigned B. C. 246-226). They are also said in the second book of Maccabees (viii. 20) to have advanced as far as Babylon, and

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to have been defeated by the Jews. The first check they eceived was from Attalus I. king of Pergamus, who defeated them in a great battle (B.C. 239) and compelled them to settle permanently in that part of Asia which was afterwards called Galatia. (Livy, xxxiii. 21; Polybius, xviii. 24.) Before this time they appear to have had no fixed habitations, but to have wandered over the various provinces of Asia Minor in search of plunder, and to have had the command of the sea-coasts of Bithynia and Paphlagonia; since Pausanias states (i. 18, s. 2) that Attalus forced them to retire from the sea to the country which they inhabited in his time. Though Attalus reduced their power, they still remained 'ndependent, and gave Antiochus great assistance in his contest with the Romans. Having thus incurred the enmity of the Roman republic, Cn. Manlius the consul was sent against them with a considerable army, B.C. 189. The particulars of this war, which terminated in the complete defeat of the Galatians, are recorded in Livy (xxxviii. 12-27). From this time they were in reality subject to Rome, though allowed to retain their own native princes. In the war against Mithridates, Deiotarus, originally only a tetrarch of one of the Galatian tribes, greatly assisted the Romans, for which service he was rewarded by the grant of Pontus and Little Armenia, and the title of king by the Roman Senate. [DEIOTARUS.] He was succeeded by Amyntas, according to Strabo (b. xiii.), or by Castor according to Dio (1. xlviii.). At the death of this prince, B.C. 25, Galatia became a Roman province. After the time of Augustus, the boundaries of the province were enlarged, and Paphlagonia was added to it; but in the reign of Constantine it was again reduced to its former limits; and in the time of Theodosius the Great was subdivided into two provinces, Galatia prima and Galatia secunda, of which Ancyra was the capital of the former, and Pessinus of the latter.

Strabo (b. xii.) informs us that Galatia was inhabited by three tribes of Gauls: the Trocmi, the Tectosages, and the Tolistobogii. Pliny (Nat. Hist. v. 42) mentions four tribes: Trocmi, Tectosages, Voturi, and Ambitui. Mannert (Géographie, vol. iii, part iii., p. 43) supposes with great probability that Pliny has by mistake given us the names of two of the smaller divisions, especially as he mentions incidentally in the same chapter the name of the Tectosages. Each tribe was subdivided into four parts, and each tribe was governed by a tetrarch, who appointed a judge and an inspector of the army. The power of these twelve tetrarchs was limited by a senate of 300, who assembled at a place called Drynæmetum, and who took cognizance of all capital cases. All other offences were left to the jurisdiction of the tetrarchs and judges. This form of government continued till shortly before the time of Deiotarus. All the tribes spoke the same language, and had the same customs. Though they afterwards spoke Greek in common with the other nations of Asia Minor, yet they had not forgutten their native tongue in the time of Jerome, who informs us (Prolegomena in Epis. ad Galatas) that they then spoke the same language as the Treviri. They did not entirely lose their original simplicity of manners, for Cicero, in his defence of Deiotarus, praises him as an extoasive cultivator and breeder of cattle (c. 9).

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Coin of Galatia, Trajan. Imperial Greek.

British Museum. Actual size. Copper. Weight, 427 grains. Galatia possessed few towns of importance, with the exception of ANCYRA, Tavium, and Pessinus. Tavium, the capital of the Trocmi, was situate in the north-east part of the province, but soon fell into obscurity. Pessinus, the capital of the Tolistobogii, north-east of the river Sangaius, was a great trading place, with a magnificent temple, sacied to the mother of the gods, who was there worshipped under the name of Agdistis. (Strabo, b. xii.) Pausanias mentions this temple, and also adds that the inhabitants of

this town abstained from pork, for which custom he assigns a curious reason (vii. 17). On the river Sangarius in this province was the ancient Gordium, formerly the capital of the Phrygian monarchy, but which had become in the time of Strabo little better than a village. Livy (xxxvii. 18) describes Gordium as a small town in his time, but carrying on an extensive commerce.

Galatia was also called Gallo-Græcia, and its inhabitants Gallo-Græci, from the intermixture of the customs and languages of the Gauls and Greeks in this province.

GALATIANS, ST. PAUL'S EPISTLE TO THE, one of the canonical books of the New Testament. Its authenticity has never been doubted: it was frequently cited by the apostolical and succeeding fathers (Lardner's Credibility of the Gosp. History, vol. ii.), and was even admitted by Marcion to a place among the apostolical writings. The date of this epistle is much disputed, some critics supposing it to have been written as early as A.D. 48, and others as late as 58. Two journeys of St. Paul to Galatia are mentioned in the Acts; one in A.D. 50 (Acts xvi. 6); and the other in 55 (Acts xviii. 23). It must have been written shortly after one of these visits, since St. Paul complains (i. 6) that they were so soon removed from him that called them into the gospel of Christ unto another gospel.' As there is very slight evidence of his having visited Galatia a second time before he wrote this epistle, we may fix the date at A.D. 51 or 52. Hug argues in his 'Introduction' (vol. ii. p. 362, Eng. trans.), that the words, Ye know how through infirmity of the flesh I preached the gospel unto you at the first (rò pórεpov)' (iv. 13), prove that the apostle had visited them twice; in which case we must suppose the Epistle to have been written A.D. 56 or 57. It is stated at the conclusion to have been written from Rome, but this is evidently incorrect.

6

It appears that shortly after St. Paul had left Galatia, some Judaizing teachers had effected a great change in the churches of that country by teaching the Gentile converts that it was necessary for them to observe the ceremonial law, and submit to the rite of circumcision. They alleged that the other apostles taught this doctrine, and that St. Paul alone differed from them. They argued that the Galatians ought not to rely upon the authority of St. Paul, since he was not an apostle. These individuals were so successful that some of the Galatians appeared to have submitted to circumcision. To counteract these errors St. Paul wrote this epistle, in which he maintains that the authority of the other apostles could not be quoted as superior to his own, since he had received his apostleship from Christ himself, and had on this very subject withstood Peter to the face, because he was to be blamed.' (i. ii.) After thus vindicating his apostolical dignity, he argues in the remaining part of the epistle that the law had only been intended as a preparation for Christianity, as a schoolmaster to bring men unto Christ, that they might be justified by faith,' and that those who considered the observance of the Jewish law as necessary for salvation deprived themselves of the blessings of the Gospel. He concludes by exhorting them not to use the liberty which the Gospel gave them for an occasion to the flesh, but by love to serve one another.' On the undesigned coincidences with the Acts,' see Paley's Hora Paulina, p. 135-183. (A list of commentators on this epistle is given in Watt's Biblioth. Britannica, and in Seiler's Biblical Hermeneutics, by Dr. Wright, p. 531. See Michaelis's Introduction, vol. iv. p. 8-22; Hug's Introduction, vol. ii. p. 361-366; Horne's Introduction, vol. iv. p. 369-372.)

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GALAXAURA. [PSEUDOZOARIA.]
GALAXY. [MILKY WAY.]

GALBA, SE'RVIUS SU'LPITIUS, born under the reign of Augustus, of a patrician family, served with distinction in Germany, was afterwards proconsul, first in Africa, and afterwards in the Tarraconensis province of Spain, in which office he acquired a reputation for justice and moderation. He was still in Spain when Julius Vindex, the proconsul of Celtic Gaul, rose against Nero; Galba joined Vindex, and Otho, governor of Lusitania, followed his example. The assembled multitudes saluted Galba as era peror and Augustus, but he declared that he was only acting as the lieutenant of the senate and people of Rome, in order to put an end to the disgraceful tyranny of Nero. The Prætorian guards at Rome soon after having revolted against Nero. proclaimed Galba, and the senate acknowledged him as emperor. Galba hastened from Spain to Rome, where i

began by calling to account those favourites of Nero who so, it could hardly have escaped the notice of the numerous had enriched themselves by proscriptions and confiscations, travellers who have visited that country. and by the senseless prodigality of that prince; but it was The plant usually described as yielding this long-known found that most of them had already dissipated their ill- gum-resin is Bubon Galbanum, a native of the Cape of gotten wealth. Galba, or rather his confidants who governed Good Hope, which Hermann described as yielding sponhim, then proceeded against the purchasers of their pro- taneously, by incision, a gummy, resinous juice, similar to perty, and confiscations became again the order of the day. Galbanum; but Mr. Don has observed that this plant posAt the same time Galba exercised great parsimony in the sesses neither the smell nor tne taste of Galbanum, but in administration, and endeavoured to enforce a strict disci- these particulars agrees better with fennel; and its fruit pline among the soldiers, who had been used to the prodi- has no resemblance whatever to that found in the gum. gality and licence of the previous reign. The emperor, The fruit, commonly called seed, was early ascertained by who was past seventy years of age, soon became the object Lobel to be that of an umbelliferous plant, broad and foliaof popular dislike and ridicule, his favourites were hated, and ceous, which he picked out of Galbanum, and, having sowed, revolts against him broke out in various quarters, several of obtained a plant, which he has figured under the name which were put down and punished severely. Galba of Ferula galbanifera. This has been lost or become conthought of strengthening himself by adopting Piso Licinia- founded with other species; but it is probable that it was nus, a young patrician of considerable personal merit, as the plant yielding Galbanum, as Mr. Don has recently obCæsar and his successor; upon which Otho, who had expected tained fruit in like manner, and something similar, which to be the object of his choice, formed a conspiracy among the he has determined to be allied to the genus Siler; but difguards, who proclaimed him emperor. Galba, unable to fering in the absence of dorsal resiniferous canals, and the walk, caused himself to be carried in a litter, hoping to sup- commissure being furnished with only two. The carpels press the mutiny; but at the appearance of Otho's armed par- | are about nine lines in length and four broad, flat intertisans his followers left him, and even the litter-bearers threw nally and somewhat converse externally. As the plant is the old man down, and ran away. Some of the legionaries still unknown, it is well worthy the investigation of tracame up and put Galba to death, after a reign of only seven vellers in the East, who might otherwise suppose, from the months, counting from the time of Nero's death, A.D. 68. name, assigned from the seed, having been adopted in the Galba was seventy-two years of age at the time of his death. London Pharmacopoeia,' that the plant was as well known He was succeeded by Otho, but only for a short time, as as its product. Vitellius superseded him, and Vespasianus soon after superseded Vitellius. (Tacitus, Histor. i.-iv.)

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Three sorts of GALBANUM are distinguished: 1, galbanum in grains or tears; 2, galbanum in masses; and 3, Persian galbanum. The two former come from Africa, especially from Ethiopia; the third sort from Persia. Galbanum in tears is most likely the spontaneous exudation from the plant; and that in masses, obtained by incisions. The first sort occurs in irregular, generally oblong grains, mostly distinct, but sometimes agglutinated together, about the size of a lentil or small pea, of a colour verging from whitish into yellowish brown, more or less diaphanous, opake, or shining with a resinous lustre. The odour is strongly balsamic, and disagreeable. The taste is resinous, sharp, bitter, and disagreeable. Specific gravity 1.212.

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GA'LBANUM. Though this drug is one of those which have been the longest known, the plant which yields it still remains undetermined, though it is stated by old writers to be a native of Syria. The Greek name chalbane (xaλßávn) is evidently the same as the Hebrew chelbenah, by which the same substance is supposed to be alluded to in the Book of Exodus. Arabian authors describe it under the name barzud. The Persians call it birzud, and give birceja as its Hindú synonyme. That the same substance is intended, is evident from khulyan and metonyon, as stated by Dr. Royle (Illustr. Himal. Bot. p. 23), being given as its Greek synonymes, which are evident corruptions of chalbane and metopion, the names of this substance in Dioscorides. The plant yielding this substance is called kinneh and nafeel by Arabian and Persian authors, by whom it is described as being jointed, thorny, and fragrant. Under the first name it is noticed in the original of Avicenna, but omitted in the Latin translation. D'Herbelot (Bibl. Orient:) however states, that the plant yielding galbanum is called ghiarkust in Persia. These names are interesting only as showing that both the plant and gum-resin appear to have been familiarly known to both Arabians and Persians, and that therefore the former is probably a native of these countries, though usually stated to be only a native of Syria. But if

It is partially soluble in alcohol, and the solution, as well as the strong white smoke which is evolved when galbanum is melted in a platinum spoon, reddens litmus paper. It consists chiefly of resin, gum, volatile oil, and a trace of malic acid.

Galbanum in masses consists of irregular pieces of a yellowish or dark brown colour; the odour is stronger than that of the preceding kind, which, in its general characters, it much resembles, except that it can be powdered only during the low temperature of winter. Geiger says that when this variety is pure, it is not to be reckoned inferior to the former. Persian galbanum, being very soft and tenacious, is sent in skins or chests. It often contains many fragments of plants.

Galbanum, like otner umbelliferous gum-resins, is antispasmodic, expectorant, and externally rubefacient. It is inferior in power to assafoetida, but usually associated with it in pills and plasters.

GA'LBULA (Zoology). [HALCYONIDE; JACAMAR.]
GA'LEA (Zoology). [ECHINIDE, vol. ix., p. 259.]
GALENA. [LEAD.]
GALE'NA.

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ILLINOIS.]

GALE'NUS, CLAUDIUS, one of the most celebrated and valuable of the antient medical writers, was born at Pergamum, A.D. 131. The exact time of his death is not known, but as he speaks of Pertinax and Severus as emperors, we may conclude that Suidas (v. Taλnvóc) is not far from the truth in stating that he lived to the age of seventy. He was early instructed in the doctrines of the Aristotelian and Platonic philosophy, and appears also to have devoted some time to the study of the peculiar tenets of the other sects; for while yet very young, he wrote commentaries on the Dialectics of the Stoic Chrysippus.

His anatomical and medical studies were commenced under Satyrus, a celebrated anatomist; Stratonicus, a dis ciple of the Hippocratic school; and schrion, a follower of the Empirics. After the death of his father, he travelled to Alexandria, at that time the most famous school of medicine in the world. His studies were so zealously and successfully pursued, that he was publicly invited to return to his native country. At the age of 34, he settled himself in Rome, when his celebrity became so great from the success of his practice, and more especially from his great

knowledge of anatomy, that he quickly drew upon himself the jealousy of all the Roman physicians. At the solicitation of many philosophers and men of rank, he commenced a course of lectures on anatomy; but by the jealousy of his rivals he was quickly compelled to discontinue them, and eventually to leave Rome entirely.

The instruction which Galen had received in the principles of the various sects of medical philosophy, had given him an acquaintance with the peculiar errors of each, and he speaks of them all at times in the language of no measured contempt. The school which was founded by himself may justly merit the title of Eclectic, for its doctrines were a mixture of the philosophy of Plato, of the physics and logic of Aristotle, and of the practical knowledge of Hippocrates. On many occasions he expresses himself strongly on the superiority of theory to mere empiricism; but upon those matters which do not admit of being objects of experience, such as the nature of the soul, he confesses his ignorance and inability to give any plausible explanation. But in order to form a correct estimate of the merits of this physician, it is necessary for us to mention particularly some of his contributions to medical science. Anatomy was at all times the favourite pursuit of Galen, but it does not appear that he had many opportunities of dissecting the human subject. This we may infer with certainty from the gratification he expresses at having discovered a human skeleton at Alexandria, and having been enabled to make observations on the body of a criminal which had remained without burial. His dissections were principally confined to the apes and lower animals; and it is to this circumstance that many of the errors in his description are referrible; for from the examination of these animals he attempted to infer analogically the structure of the human body. He describes the sternum as consisting of seven pieces instead of eight. He supposes the sacrum to consist of three pieces instead of five, and looks upon the coccyx as a fourth, whereas it is a distinct bone in men till twenty or twenty-five, and in women as late as forty-five.

His descriptions of the muscles appear to be more generally correct. He described for the first time two of the muscles of the jaws, and two which move the shoulder. In addition to these he discovered the popliteal muscles and the platysma myoides. He denied the muscular texture of the heart on account of the complicated nature of its functions, but he gave a good description of its transverse fibres and its general structure. The knowledge of the vascular system which Galen possessed does not appear to have been greater or more accurate than that of his predecessors. He supposed the veins to originate in the liver, and the arteries to take their rise from the heart. He likewise showed by experiment, in opposition to Erasistratus, that the arteries contained blood, and not merely the animal spirits, as that physician maintained. He had observed the structure and use of the valves of the heart, and, arguing from their evident intention, concluded that a portion of the blood passed with the animal spirits from the pulmonary artery into the pulmonary vein, and so to the left side of the heart. He was also aware of the connection between the veins and arteries by means of the capillary vessels. The existence of the ductus arteriosus and foramen ovale during the stage of foetal life was not unknown to him, and he had also noticed the changes which they undergo after birth.

Galen understood generally the distinction between nerves of sensation and nerves of motion, but his knowledge upon this point does not appear to have been great; for he supposed that the former proceeded only from the brain, and that the latter had their origin exclusively in the spinal marrow. This opinion is the more remarkable, as he himself describes the third pair of cerebral nerves, or principal motor nerve of the eye. In his description of the cerebral nerves, he notices the olfactory, though somewhat indistinctly, the optic, the third pair, two branches of the fifth, the two divisions of the seventh pair, and some branches of the par vagum and hypoglossal nerves, but he appears to have confounded these together very much in his description. He detected the mistake of those anatomists who thought there was an entire crossing of the optic nerves, but fell himself into the error of supposing that no decussation at all takes place.

In order to form correct physiological views, it is necessary to employ many and varied experiments, and to modify them in different ways, that we may be able to satisfy

the numerous conditions which every problem in physiology presents. To this mode of inquiry Galen sometimes had recourse, and it were to be wished that he had more frequently made use of it. To prove the dependence of muscular motion upon nervous influence, he divided the nerves which supply the muscles of the shoulder, and_found that after the division all power of motion ceased. But he does not seem to have noticed that the nervous influence is only one of the many stimuli which call the muscles into action. As he considered the heart to be devoid of nerves, he might have avoided this error, had he not fortified himself against the truth, by assuming that its structure is not muscular. He also deprived animals of their voice by dividing the intercostal muscles, by tying the recurrent nerve, or by injuring the spinal cord. In theoretical physiology his ar rangement of the vital phenomena deserves to be particu larly recorded, as it forms the groundwork of all the clas sifications which have since been proposed. It is founded upon the essential differences observed in the functions themselves. Observing that some of them cannot be interrupted without the destruction of life, and for the most part are unconsciously performed, whilst another class may be suspended without injury, are accompanied by sensation, and subject to the power of the will, he divided the func tions into three great classes. The vital functions are those whose continuance is essential to life; the animal are those which are perceived, and for the most part are subject to the will; whilst the natural are performed without consciousness or control. He then assumed certain abstract principles upon which these functions were supposed to depend. He conceived the first to have their seat in the heart, the second in the brain, and the third in the liver. Thus the pulsations of the heart are produced by the vital forces, and these are communicated to the arteries by the intervention of the pneuma-this is the more subtle part of the air, which is taken in by respiration, and conveyed from the lungs to the left side of the heart, and from thence to the different parts of the body. In the brain the pneuma forms the medium by which impressions from external objects are conveyed to the common sensorium. The same principle is applied to the explanation of the natural functions also. Observing that these forces are not sufficient for the explanation of the different vital phenomena, Galen had recourse to the doctrine of elements, of which, after the example of Aristotle, and before him Plato in the Timæus,' he admits four, and from the mixture of these deduces the secondary qualities. It may be worth while to observe how he employs this hypothesis in his treatise De tuendâ Valetudine' (Ed. Johan. Caii, Basil, ap. Froben. 1549), in the explanation of the phenomena of health and disease. The injurious influences to which animal bodies are liable are of two kinds: innate or necessary, and acquired. The former depend upon their original constitution. They are formed of two substances: the blood, which is the material (ŋ); and the semen, the formative principle. These are composed of the same general elements, hot, cold, moist, and dry, four champions fierce,' or, to express them in their essences instead of their qualities, fire, air, water, and earth. Their differences depend upon the proportions in which these elements enter into their composition. Thus in the semen the fiery and aeriform essences predominate; in the blood, the watery and earthy; and in the blood the hot is superior to the cold, and the moist to dry. The semen again is drier than the blood, but yet upon the whole is of a moist nature; so that in the original formation of the body there is a predominance of the moist principle. After birth therefore there is a ne cessity for an increase of the dry principle. This is obtained not from the earth itself, but through the medium of fire. From the increasing influence of this principle, the changes which take place in the body during life are to be explained: as for instance, the softness and flexibility of the limbs in childhood compared with their rigidity in old-age. By cating and drinking we obtain a fresh supply of the dry and moist principles. By respiration and the pulsations of the heart, a due supply of the cold and hot principles is kept up. But as they cannot be obtained in a fit state for the different uses of the animal economy, organs are necessary to digest, separate, and remove the unsuitable portions.

Health consists in the perfect and harmonious admixture of these various elements. But we must assume, in addition, that the body is free from pain, and that there is no obstacle to the due performance of the functions. From this idea of health we may easily form the conception of

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