vols. 8vo., Lipsia, 1821-1830). Most of the writings of Galen exist also in Arabic, and some in Hebrew translations. The reputation of this great writer was for a long time as unbounded and his authority as absolute among the Arabs as among the physicians of Europe. (Harvey, Exercit. Anatom.; Sprengel's Hist. of Medi cine; Clark's Report on Animal Physiology, from the Trans. of Brit. Assoc., 1834.) GALE'OLA. [ECHINIDE, vol. ix., p. 259.] GALEOLA'RIA. [DIPHYDES, vol. ix., p. 10; SERPU LIDE.] GALEOPITHECUS (Zoology). [PLEUROPTERA.] disease. It is that state of body in which the functions are in any way interrupted. It depends upon some disproportion in the constituent elements, or some unnatural condition of the organs. The causes of disease are divided by Galen into occasional and predisposing. The latter are supposed to depend upon some degeneration of the humours. This degeneration was called by him a putrefaction. Thus the quotidian fever is referred to putrefaction of the mucus; tertian, to that of the yellow bile; and quartan, to that of the black bile-this last humour being slow of motion, and requiring a greater time for the completion of the paroxysm. It was upon this theory of the putrefaction of the humours that the practice of physicians was founded for centuries after the death of Galen, and their remedies were directed to the expulsion of the supposed offending matter. Inflammation depends, according to Galen, upon the passage of the blood into those GALIA'CEÆ, a natural order of Exogenous plants called parts which, in their normal condition, do not contain it. Stellatæ by Linnæus, and merged in Cinchonacea by the If the blood be accompanied by the spirits, the inflamma- school of Jussieu. It consists of herbaceous, usually squaretion is spirituous; if the blood penetrates alone, it is phleg-stemmed plants, with a scabrous surface, verticillate leaves, monous. Erysipelatous inflammation is caused by the and monopetalous flowers with an inferior didymous fruit admixture of bile; oedematous, by that of mucus; and schir- enclosing a couple of seeds containing an embryo lying in a rous, by the addition of black bile. The same divisions of great quantity of horny albumen. Some yield a dyeing subinflammation are still retained by systematic writers, but stance in their roots, as the various species of Madder, but we are content to abstain from referring them to these the greater part are useless weeds. One of our common assumed causes. British species of Galium, viz., G. verum, is astringent, and was formerly used by farmers to curdle milk. The reputation of Galen was established upon the general reception which his theories met with; and his passion for theorizing was so great that he has left us but few good descriptions of disease. In these his principal object seems to have been to display his own talent for prognosis. From a character like this we are not to expect much information in the application of particular remedies, but the general principles which he lays down in respect to indications of treatment are worthy of notice. He directs us to draw our indications especially from the nature of the disease; but if this be undiscovered, from the influence of the seasons and the state of the atmosphere, from the constitution of the patient, his manner of living, or his strength, and in some few instances, from the accession of the disease. He is said to have occasionally performed surgical operations, but during his stay in Rome he commonly refused to do so, in compliance with the custom of the Roman physicians. The unbounded influence which the authority of this great and learned physician exercised over the minds of his successors, unquestionably contributed to retard the progress of medicine. For while physicians were occupied in the study of his works, and in vain attempts to reconcile the phenomena of nature with the dicta of their master, they aad little time and less inclination to interrogate Nature nerself, and pursue the study of medicine in those fields in which alone it can be followed with success. Galen was a most voluminous writer. Though many of nis works are said to have been burnt in his house at Rome, and others in the course of time have been lost, there are still extant one hundred and thirty-seven treatises and fragments of treatises, of which eighty-two are considered undoubtedly genuine. From thirty to fifty treatises are still in MS.; and one hundred and sixty-eight are mentioned as the ascertained number of those that are lost. The writings of Galen are valuable, not only for the history of medicine, but the great variety of miscellaneous matter which they contain. Numerous editions of his works have been published, and several Latin translations since the discovery of printing. Five Latin editions of the collected works of Galen were published before the Greek text: the first Latin edition is that by Bonardus, Venice, 1490, 2 vols., fol. His Historia Philosophica' was printed by Aldus in 1497, together some treatises of Aristotle and Theophrastus; and in 1525 the same printer published the first complete edition of the Greek text at Venice, in 5 vols. fo., which was edited by And. and Fr. Asulanus, and was dedicated to Clement the Seventh. The text of this edition was by no means correct; but the impressions on large paper are scarce and valuable. An edition was vublished at Basle, 1562, in 4 vols. folio, with prolegomena, by the naturalist Gesner. His treatises, De Methodo Mc dendi,' De Naturali Facultate, De Sanitate Tuendâ,' were translated by our countryman Linacre, and an edition | of his treatise, De Sanitate Tuendâ,' and of some cther works, was published by Caius. More recently an edition n Greek and Latin has been published by C. G. Kühn (19 GALERITES. [ECHINIDE, vol. ix., pp. 259, 261.] GA'LGULUS (Zoology). [ROLLERS.] of the same, without the corolla; 4, a transverse section of a ripe fruit. GALIA'NI, FERDINANDO, was born at Chieti, in the Abruzzo, in 1728, and studied at Napies, where he first attracted attention by some humorous compositions which he published under an assumed name, to ridicule certain pedantic academicians (Componimenti varii per la morte di Domenico Jannaccone carnefice della Gran Corte della Vicaria, 1749). In the following year his important work, 'Della Moneta,' on the 'coin,' or 'currency,' was also published under an assumed name. In this work he established the principle, which was then far from being acknowledged, that money is a merchandize, and that its value and interest ought to be left free like other goods. He contended also that abundance of money and consequent high prices are not an evil, as was supposed by many, and that in countries where low prices prevail the people are generally most miserable. This work produced a great sensation on the Continent, and especially at Naples, where the government adopted its principles, and left the trade in bullion free. It is generally believed that Bartolommeo Intieri and the Marquis Rinuccini, two Tuscan economists of that time, furnished Galiani, who was then a young man scarcely twenty-one years of age, with their ideas on the subject, which Galiani extended and produced in a readable shape. He published a second edition of this work, 30 years after, in 1780, with additions. In the 1st book he examines the intrinsic value of the precious metals, independent of their use as currency; in the second he treats of the use of a metallic currency as a medium of exchange; and in the tnird he discusses the relative value of the three metals used for coin, the conventional value of the coined currency of a country in relation to the prices of goods, and the occasional expedient adopted by some governments to raise the value of the currency, as the Romans did after the first Punic war, and as Louis XIV. did in France. In 1759 Galiani was sent to Paris as secretary of legation, and his vivacity, wit and repartee rendered him a favourite among the fashionable and literary coteries of that capital. He remained in Paris several years, visited England and Holland, and on his return to France wrote his Dialogues sur le Commerce des Blés,' which was his second work on political economy. He did not publish this essay himself, but left the MS. in the hands of Diderot, who had it printed in 1670. The French economists were then divided into two parties, one of which advocated a free trade in corn, and the other was opposed to it. An edict, published in 1764, permitting the free exportation of corn, was followed by a rise of prices and a scarcity, which by some were considered as the effects of that measure, whilst others denied the inference. Galiani supported neither of the two systems absolutely: he contended that the laws concerning the corn-trade must vary according to the situation of various states, the nature and cultivation of the respective soils, the relative position of their corn districts or provinces, and also the form of their governments. In a letter to Suard, dated 1770, he explains himself more clearly on this last topic, saying, 'that under a despotic government a free exportation of corn might prove dangerous, as it might be followed by a famine, which would rouse the people against its rulers; that in a democracy the same freedom is a natural result of the political institutions; whilst in mixed and temperate governments the freedom of the corntrade must be modified by circumstances.' Galiani censured the free-exportation edict of 1764, and he proposed instead of it certain duties on the exportation of corn, and a lesser duty on the exportation of flour, and a duty likewise on the importation of foreign corn. He notices in his work the small manufacturing states with little territory, like Geneva, and surrounded by powerful and occasionally hostile neighbours, in which he thinks well-stored granaries are as necessary as in a garrison-town; and the states with a territory unproductive in corn, such as Genoa, in which he contends that the corn-trade ought to be perfectly free. On his return to Naples, Galiani was appointed by the king to the Board of Trade, and afterwards to the Board of Finances, and to the superintendence of the crown domains. His health, naturally weak, suffered from constant application, and he died in October, 1787, at the age of 59 years. He left in MS. a commentary or series of disquisitions on the life and character of Horace and the spirit of his poems, parts of which he showed to several of his friends, who spoke highly of the work, extracts of which are found in the Correspondence de Galiani avec Madame d'Epinay, Paris, 1818; in the notes to the Traduzione d'Orazio di T. Gargallo, Naples, 1820; in the Vita dell' abate Ferdinando Galiani, scritta da Luigi Diodati, Naples, 1788; and in the Mélanges de l'abbé Suard, tirés de la Gazette littéraire d'Europe: see also Ugoni, della Letteratura Italiana, vol. ii., art. Galiani.' GALICIA, the Kingdom of, is the north-eastern province of the Austrian dominions, and lies between 47° 10′ and 50° 50' N. lat., and 18° 54′ and 26° 37′ E. long. It includes the country formerly called the Buckowine, and is bounded on the north by the republic of Cracow, Poland, and Russia; on the east by Russia; on the south-east by Moldavia; on the south and south-west by Transylvania and Hungary; and on the west by Hungary, Austrian Silesia, and Prussian Silesia. Galicia derives its name from the former principality of Haliczia or Galiczia, which, together with a considerable portion of Red Russia, once formed part of Hungary, but was incorporated with Poland in the year 1374. Its antient connexion with Hungary served as a pretext to the Empress Maria Theresa, in 1772, when Poland was enfeebled by intestine divisions, to claim its restoration; a claim which the Poles were forced to concede by the treaty of the 18th September, 1773, in consequence of which that part of the republic, now termed Galicia, was surrendered to Austria, and annexed to its dominions under the name of the kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. Its area is variously computed; but that of the Austrian quarP C., No. 663. ter-master-general's department, which states it to be 32,508 square miles, is considered the most accurate. Liesganig however, who completed his triangular survey in 1821, estimates it at 32,949 square miles. The population rose from 3,695,285 in 1816 to 4,293,488 in 1825; and from the last numbers to 4,548,334 in 1834. The present population is estimated at nearly 4,600,000. Galicia spreads out, in its whole length on the northern side of the Carpathian mountains, into extensive plains: those mountains extend their arms deep into the kingdom, and on the west, the Beskide branch of them stretches as far as the banks of the Vistula, rising almost abruptly out of the lowlands into heights of 2000, and sometimes of 4600 feet. The most elevated summit in this quarter is the "Babia Gora," (Women's Mount), which Staszic estimates at 5410, and Hacquet at 5850 feet above the level of the sea. In the south-west, the Patra or central range of the Carpathians, with their peaked summits and desolate naked aspect, rise to still greater elevations; the great Kryvan to about 8300, and the Rohicz to 7230 feet. The branches of this range penetrate much deeper into the country than those of the Beskides. The Buckowine, now the circle o Czernovitz, is covered with offsets of the Carpathians, anc is altogether a mountain region. The mountains are ful of small lakes, which are here called Sav, Plesse, or " Eyes of the Sea;" the largest of them, which lies to the north of the Great Kryvan, is called the Fish Lake; it is at an elevation of about 4550 feet above the level of the sea, but does not exceed 1600 paces in length, or 500 feet in breadth; it has a depth of 192 feet, and forms an almost perfect oval. The northern part of Galicia is an extensive plain, in some parts intersected by low ranges of hills; and in the western part also a dead level begins at Skavina on the right bank of the Vistula, and varying in width, extends to the banks of the San. The soil of the plains consists almost universally of loam and sand; the most remarkable accumulation of the latter is in what is called the Sand Mountain (Sandberg) near Lemberg. The rivers of the western part of the kingdom of Galicia belong to the basin of the Vistula; and those of the eastern, to the basins of the Danube and the Dniester. The Vistula forms the western boundary next to Poland for about 180 miles, flowing north-eastwards from the spot where Austrian and Prussian Silesia and Galicia converge to a point, and quitting the kingdom at Popowicze, a village opposite Zavichost at its northern extremity; this river increases in breadth along this frontier-line from about 120 to nearly 200 paces, and has a rapid current until below Cracow, the difference in the elevation of its bed from the point just mentioned and that city being about 200 feet. The tributaries of the Vistula, on the side of Galicia, are the Dunayec or Danayez, which flows down from the Carpathians, is naviga ble in the low country, receives the Poprad, also a navigable stream, and other rivers in its course, chiefly northwards, through the circles of Sandecz, Bochnia, and Tainof, and falls into the Vistula near Novopole, opposite Opatoviec, after a course of about 105 miles. This river, like all those which flow from the Carpathians, overflows its banks in rainy seasons, does much damage and is dangerous to navigate. The Wysloka is formed at Yaslo out of the junction of the Dembowka, Ropa, and Yasielka, flows through the circles of Yaslo and Tarnof, and after a northern course of about 70 miles, joins the Vistula near the village of Ostróf, in the north of Galicia. The San or Saan, the most important tributary of the Vistula in this quarter, rises in the south-western extremity of the circle of Sambor near Sianki, a village on one of the most northerly declivities of the Carpathians, takes a north-westerly direction to Sanok and Bynof, whence it runs eastwards to the town of Przemysl, and thence flows north-westwards through a low country past Yaroslaf until it falls into the Vistula near Lapiszof. Its whole length is about 180 miles, and its chief tributaries are the Wyslek and Tanef. The Bug, which has its efflux in the Vistula also, does not become a considerable stream until it has quitted Galicia; it rises near Galigory to the east of Lemberg, flows westwards when above the latitude of that town, and before it reaches Busk turns northwards and afterwards north-westwards, and leaving Galicia below Sokal, enters Poland. The Dniester, another of the considerable rivers in this kingdom, through which it flows for a distance of about 310 miles, has its source in the Carpathians in the western part of the circle of Sambor, winds through VOL. XI.-G that circle, Brzezany, Stry, Stanislavof, and Kolomea, and having formed the boundary-line between Galicia and Russia from Czortkof to Orkop beyond Czernovitz, enters the Russian territory. Eastern Galicia has three other large rivers: the Pruth, which rises in the Carpathians within the circle of Stanislavof, flows through that circle as well as Kolomea and Czernovitz in the Buckowine, and passes over into Moldavia below Pentuluy; the Sered, which has its source near Pursuka and leaves the Buckowine below Sereth; and the Moldava, which rises in the circle of Czernovitz and soon afterwards quits the Buckowine, whence it enters Moldavia. The south-eastern districts of Galicia are also watered by the Golden Bistriza, a tributary of the Sereth. There are no canals. According to an enumeration made some years ago, the mineral springs consisted of 11 sulphuretted springs, 12 chalybeate, and 6 acidulous. The most frequented are the chalybeate waters of Krynieza, and the sulphuretted springs of Sklo, Lubien, and Konopkofski. The climate of Galicia is colder than that of any other possession of Austria, in consequence of the proximity of the Carpathians. The summer is generally short, and the grape never ripens: the winter is very severe for six months at least, and it is not uncommon to see deep snow lying in the middle of April, or an oat-crop buried by the snow, in the vicinity of the Beskide and other Carpathian mountains. The moist and swampy plains in the northern part of the kingdom render that quarter also very chilly and raw. The soil is of a very varied character. In the neighbourhood of the Carpathians, where sterile rocks or cold clay abound, the husbandman has difficulty in raising even sufficient barley, oats, and potatoes, for his own consumption. But towards the plains, the soil becomes richer and more productive: the most fertile parts are those perhaps about Yaroslaf, such districts in the circle of Zloczof where limestone forms the substratum, the greater portion of the circles of Stanislavof and Kolomea, and the newly cleared lands in the Buckowine. In many parts the soil is so light, that the grass, underwood, and even trees, quickly wither under the heat of the sun. Galicia abounds in sandstone, granite, sand of a very superior grain, quartz, slate, yellow and common clay, potter's earth, yellow ochre, marble, gypsum, &c. Mountain crystals, agates, jaspers, ordinary opal, alabaster, &c., are found in several spots. The Carpathians are rich in metals, particularly iron, which is found along the whole line of the Carpathians, from the circle of Sandecz to the frontiers of the Buckowine; but the produce does not exceed more than fifteen or, at the utmost, eighteen pounds of metal in every hundred-weight of ore. Bog-iron likewise is met with in the circles of Stry and Zolkief. Gold is obtained in small quantities in the circle of Sandec, and gold-dust in the vicinity of Kirlibaba. Veins of silver are found in the lead of Mount Dudul, near that place, and it is also extracted from the calamine obtained near Truskawicze. Poszorita, in the Buckowine, produces good copper ores in the proportion of three, and sometimes five pounds per hundred-weight of mica slate. Native sulphur occurs at Svoszovice, in the circle of Bochnia, and Sklo, in that of Przemysl. Coal is found near Moszyn, Kuty, and Skwarczva. The northern side of the Carpathians contains enormous masses of rock-salt, and the country is full of salt-springs, especially the Buckowine. The population of Galicia are indolent and ignorant, oppressed by the Fröhndienste (services), which for Galicia alone amount to 31,246,464 days in the year, and the system of husbandry is lamentably defective and imperfect. Independently of the Buckowine, the land available for useful purposes is about 16,394,900 acres; but including that province the quantity converted to use is not more than about 6,211,900 acres in arable land; garden ground, 395,780; fallows, 97,970; converted into ponds, &c., 131,650; meadow-land, 1,876,940; and employed for feeding sheep, cattle, &c., 1,682,360; amounting altogether to 10,396,600 acres, to which must be added 4,998,870 of forest and woodland. The husbandry of Galicia is in a low state; the farmer's waggons are made without iron, his horses are never or seldom used at the plough, and he can scarcely afford to lay manure on his ground. The principal grain produced is wheat, rye, oats, and barley, and the yearly growth is estimated at about 7,200,000 quarters of corn, of which about 1,560,000 quarters are of rye; 2,071,000 of Darley; 2,900,000 of oats; 670,000 of wheat, and 22,220 of maize. The crop of hay is said to be about 973,000 tons. Rye, buckwheat, pease and beans, potatoes and other common vegetables, succory, clover, flax and hemp, tobacco, aniseed, rape and other seed for making oil, a few hops, &c. are also grown. The supply of fruit is very scanty. The forests consist principally of pine-wood, and there are large tracts of underwood. The beech was formerly much more abundant on the Carpathians than at the present day, otherwise the Buckowine, from buk, which signifies the red beech, would scarcely have been the patronymic of that province. In some parts the oak attains to a majestic growth. Tar and potashes are made in considerable quantities. The population has increased since the year 1776, when it amounted to 2,480,885, to its present amount of nearly 4,600,000. The cholera alone in 1831 carried off 96,081 individuals, which is upwards of 2 in every 100 souls. In 1823 the number of deaths was 106,929; in 1829, 148,240; and in 1830, 155,155. Among the latter were those of 3758 persons between the ages of 80 and 100, and 220 above the age of 100. Of the inhabitants about 2,900,000 are of Polish descent, chiefly located in the Western provinces, and 1,900,000 are Ruthenes or Russniaks, a rude, uncivilized race of men, who have spread into the centre of Russia, and are also numerous on the Hungarian side of the Carpathians: they inhabit the circles of Galicia east of the San. The remaining part of the population consists of about 270,000 Moldavians in the Buckowine, 250,000 Jews, who are scattered throughout the kingdom, and a mixed race of Germans, Hungarians, &c. The majority of the inhabitants are Roman Catholics: there are besides about 1,800,000 who conform partially to the rites of the Roman Catholic church, 270,000 Greek non-conformists, 4000 Armenians, and 5000 Protestants. The Roman Catholics are in ecclesiastical matters in charge of the Archbishop of Lemberg and the bishops of Przemysl and Tarnof. Their dioceses contain 734 benefices, 38 monasteries, 13 nunneries, and a college of Jesuits. The Armenians, though so few in number, have an archbishop at Lemberg, and compose 8 cures of souls. The Græco-Catholics, mostly Russniaks, have also their own archbishop at Lemberg, and a bishop at Przemysl, and their establishment consists of 1488 benefices, 14 monasteries, and 3 nunneries. The Greeks, wholly Moldavians, are under a Greek bishop at Czernovitz in the Buckowine, and compose 274 cures of souls : they have 3 monasteries. The Protestants are under a superintendent at Lemberg. The number of benevolent institutions is considerable, and comprises eighteen Christian and three Jewish hospitals or asylums for the sick or diseased, a hospital of the Benevolent Brothers, six hospitals conducted by the Benevolent Sisterhood, 312 infirmaries and refuges for the indigent, and twenty-seven poorhouses. The government of Galicia is on the same footing as that of the other hereditary possessions of Austria. The highest authority in civil affairs is the Board of Provincial Administration at Lemberg (das Landes Gubernium), to which the whole nineteen circles of the kingdom are subordinate. The court of appeal and chief criminal court are in the same town, where also are the head-quarters of the commander-in-chief for Galicia. The scholastic establishments are very inadequate to provide for the general education of the people. The whole number scarcely amounts to 1400, among which are a university and an academy at Lemberg, three philosophical seminaries at Przemysl, Czernovitz, and Tarnopol, thirteen gymnasia, attended by about 1400 pupils, two schools for merchants' sons, mechanics, &c., at Lemberg and Brody, a normal school at Lemberg, thirty-one head national schools, 1303 parochial and twenty-two girls' schools. It has been calculated that not more than one in every eight children capable of receiving instruction attends any school. There are seventy-two public establishments for the propagation of improved races of horses and military haras at Radantz in the Buckowine, and Olchowek in the circle of Sanok. The best native horses of the Polish breed are bred in the western circles. The increase has been considerable throughout Galicia, for in 1810, the stock was 214,962; in 1823, 407,662; and in 1830, 497,808. Large droves of horned cattle are fed, the finest being brought from Moldavia: in 1823, the stock was 499,226 oxen and bullocks, and 926,569 cows; and in 1830, 562,865 and 988,332. Much has been done towards improving the race of sheep, and Galicia now produces some fine wools; the stock was 381,101 in 1810; 653,429 in 1823; and 812,412 in 1830. In the eastern districts especially much honey and wax are made; the red wax of the Buckowine is in great repute. The rivers and small lakes, and ponds, the last of which occupy an area of nearly 206 square miles, are well supplied with fish. The bear, wolf, fox, beaver, roebuck, stag, lynx, marmot, eagle, vulture, swan, heron, wild goose, squirrel and hare are the principal wild animals. The mining industry of Galicia is chiefly confined to iron and salt. Silver, copper, and lead are the product of the Buckowine: of silver, the produce of Kirlibaba is about 500 marks annually, and of lead in combination with a small portion of silver, about thirty-three tons. The copper-mines of Poszorita yield about fifty tons of metal per annum. The iron-mines in the Carpathians, which comprise 271 shafts, do not yield more than about 2700 tons of metal. The mountains of Galicia abound in rock-salt. The mines of Wieliczka are of great magnitude and well known, and produce four-fifths of the whole quantity raised; the remainder is obtained chiefly from the mines of Bochnia. There has been a great decrease in the annual produce of late years; it was 53,300 tons twenty years ago, and at present it is not more than 42,500. A fine kitchen-salt is made from the saline springs in the eastern parts of the kingdom: there are twenty-two works, producing about 15,200 tons. The quantity exported is about 32,000 tons. A very small quantity of coal is raised at Myszyn, in the circle of Kolomea, and the sulphur-pits at Svoszovice produce abou 130 tons of pure sulphur yearly. Mineral pitch is distilled into naphtha at the government works in the circles of Sambor, Kolomea, and Stanislavof, to the extent of about 70,000 gallons per annum. The manufactures of Galicia are gradually extending, though they are still on a confined scale. The country people in general make the materials for their clothing. The spinning and weaving of flax and hemp give employ ment to thousands. They manufacture very coarse and durable linen, and in some parts a few fine cloths, damask and table linen, &c. The whole number of looms thus employed is about 4600. The cotton manufacture is inconsiderable. Much woollen yarn is spun, both by hand and machinery; and there are small manufactures of coarse woollens in all parts: the finer sorts are made at Biala, Lipnik, Mikulince, Plotycze, and Zalosce. There are 12 paper-mills, but their produce is of inferior quality. Shipbuilding is carried on principally in the circles of Przemysl and Reszof: the produce of deals, staves, &c. is considerable; and great quantities of utensils, &c. in wood are made. Brandy is manufactured on almost every large estate; the Jews in particular are considerable distillers, and have upwards of 2000 stills at work. Much tobacco and some beet-root sugar are manufactured. Leather employs many hands; but the production of iron, copper, and other metallic articles is limited. Potter's ware, earthenware, and ordinary china, glass, and flints may be added to this enumeration. The foreign trade of Galicia is very limited, a circumstance owing to the position of the country, the want of enterprise and capital, and the difficulty of navigating the rivers. The lines of communication by land, which are the principal channels of internal intercourse, are in the hands of Jewish carriers. The exports consist of cattle, skins and hides, wool, grain, salt, timber, potashes, aniseed, horses, &c., and the imports of raw materials from Hungary, Poland, Russia, Turkey, &c., and of wines and manufactured goods and colonial produce. Galicia contains 19 circles, 95 towns, 194 market-towns and villages, 6050 villages and hamlets, and about 660,000 houses. CHIEF TOWNS. Wadovicze, 2400 inhabitants; Biala 4000, Kenty 3750, Myslenice 2140, Auschwitz 2000, Sayhusz 3000. Bochnia 4800, Wieliczka 4550, Podgorze (opposite Cracow) 1670. Novy-Sandec, or Sandez 4500. Stari-Sandec 3080, Neumark 2830, Piwalczna. Tarnóf 2260, Pilezno 1260, Ropczice 1200. Yaslo 1770, Biecz 1920, Dukla 2200, Krosno 2200. Rzeszof 4300, Lancur 1880, Przevorsk 2950, Lezaysk 3300. LEMBERG (capital of Galicia) 56,300, Grodek 3800, Sczerzec 1450. Przemysl 7550, Yaroslaf 3400, Yavorof 3300, Sadova-wisznia 2220, Mosciska 2760. Sambor 6500, Drohobycz 3150, Komarno 2380, Stari (old) Sambor 2360, Starosól GALICIA, a province of Spain, situated at the north- wards by Lugo and Orense, and receives the Sil, which comes west extremity of the peninsula, is bounded on the north from the mountains of Astorga; on touching the frontiers by the Bay of Biscay, on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, of Portugal it turns westwards, and forms the boundary on the south by Portugal, and on the east by the Spanish between Galicia and the Portuguese province of Entre provinces of Asturias and Leon. Its greatest length from Douro e Minho, after which it passes by Tuy, and enters the north to south is about 125 miles, and its greatest breadth Atlantic in 41° 50′ N. lat. 2. The Tambro, which rises in about 120. Its area may be reckoned at about 15,000 the mountains north of Sant Iago de Compostela, and square miles, and its population is vaguely calculated at flows south-west into the Atlantic. 3. The Ulla, which above one million and a half; but there are no authentic rises in the mountains in the centre of the province; and returns, as Miñano himself observes. The country is flowing westwards, enters the Atlantic south of the Tambro. mountainous, being covered by several offsets of the 4. The Lima, which rises in the mountains south-east of Asturian chain, one of which runs westward towards Cape Orense, and flowing south-west, enters Portugal near Finisterre, and another runs to the south-west along the Lindoso. The principal products of Galicia are wine, right bank of the Miño, dividing the waters of that river from fruits, flax, wheat, barley, maize; good pastures, which feed those of the Ulla and the Tambro, and reaches the coast of a vast quantity of cattle; and abundance of chesnuts, which the Atlantic south of Vigo; whilst a third ridge, farther constitute a common food of the peasantry. The forests to the east, runs nearly due south, dividing the waters supply plenty of wood for fuel and timber for building. which flow into the Miño from those which run into the The climate is generally chill and moist, but more temperate Douro, and extends ito Portugal. The principal rivers on the sea-coast than in the interior. The Galicians are-1. The Miño, which rises in the mountains of Mon- (Gallegos, in Spanish) are a hardy, industrious, and docile doñedo, in the north-east part of the province, flows south-people, but not cleanly either in their persons or dwellings. In their habits they resemble their neighbours the Portu- | circumstances, the rudiments of classical and polite litera guese, rather than the rest of the Spaniards. They speak a ture, he was placed by his father at the University of Pisa dialect which has considerable resemblance to the Portu- in his 19th year. Galilei was designed for the medical proguese language. Many of them visit Portugal, and fession, but that genius for experiment and demonstration, numbers may be seen in the streets of Lisbon and Porto of which he exhibited the symptoms in his earlier youth, employed as porters and water-carriers; and they have having found a more ample scope in the university under the an established reputation for honesty. The principal manu- kind auspices of Guido Ubaldi, with whom he had become acfacture of the country is linen, which is made in great quainted through his first essay on the Hydrostatic Balance, quantity and of very good quality, and chiefly in private he determined to renounce the study of medicine and pursue families; besides supplying their domestic wants, it is geometry and experimental philosophy. This resolution, exported to other provinces. to which his father reluctantly agreed, was highly approved by those who had witnessed his extraordinary talents, and was perseveringly followed up by him through the rest of his life. The population of Galicia is almost entirely agricultural; landed property is much subdivided, and the great majority of the people do not live in towns and villages, as in most other provinces of Spain, but in detached dwellings on their lands and fields. The parishes contain each a certain number of lugares, and each lugar consists of a certain number of houses, not at a great distance from each other. There are but few towns or large villages; the principal towns, which are at the same time heads of districts, are as follows:-1. La Coruña [CORUNA], which is the residence of the captain-general; 2. St. Iago de Compostela [CoмPOSTELA], where is the high court of justice for the whole province; 3. Betanzos, with 5000 inhabitants, on the river of the same name, in a fine country and mild climate, has a few manufactories, and carries on some trade in wine and pickled sardines, which are fished all along this coast; 4. Mondoñedo, with 6000 inhabitants, and a bishop's see, has a royal college, and a seminary for clerical students; 5. Lugo, the antient Lucus Augusti, a Roman colony, has now 7200 inhabitants, is a bishop's see, has some fine old buildings, and some remains of Roman walls. It lies on the left bank of the Miño, nearly in the centre of the province, and on the high road from Coruña to Madrid: its climate is among the coldest in Galicia. 6. Orense, with 4000 inhabitants, a bishop's see, a fine bridge on the Miño, and hot mineral waters, is situated in a district abounding with good wine. 7. Tuy, a frontier town on the side of Portugal, situated on the right bank of the Miño, has 6000 inhabitants, is a bishop's see, has a fine cathedral, and is in a fertile district. The other principal towns are: 8. Vigo, on the fine Bay of the same name, forming one of the largest and safest natural harbours in Spain. Vigo carries on a considerable trade with America, exporting wine, sardines, linen cloth and stockings, and other articles of native industry. It has 5700 inhabitants, and is defended by two castles. 9. FERROL. Upon the whole Galicia is one of the most important provinces of Spain, and not one of the least industrious; its large population, being chiefly of a rural character, is much under the influence of the parochial clergy. The antient name of the country was Gallacia; it was partly conquered by Decimus Junius Brutus (Livy's Epitome, 56) and afterwards entirely subjugated by Augustus, when it became a part of the Tarraconensis province. It was afterwards conquered by the Visigoths; at a later period the Moors invaded it, but it was soon reconquered by the Christian princes of Asturias, to whose kingdom it was annexed. (Miñano, Diccionario Geografico de España.) GALICTIS. [GRISON.] GALILEE. [PALESTINE.] His first important discovery was the isochronism of the vibrations of a simple pendulum sustained by a fixed point. This property is not rigorously true where the arcs of oscillation are considerable and unequal, nor does Galilei ever seem to have adopted any contrivance similar to a fly-wheel, by which these arcs may be rendered equal. His knowledge too of the force of gravity, of the decomposition of forces, and of atmospheric resistance, was too imperfect to conduct him to any valuable improvement of the instrument, and hence the fair claims of his successor, Huyghens, so well supported by his treatise ' De Horologio Oscillatorio,' cannot with any justice be transferred to Galilei, whose merits are sufficiently abundant and conspicuous to need no borrowed attributes. This equality or near equality of the time of vibrations Galilei recognised by counting the corresponding number of his own pulsations, and having thus perceived that the pendulum oscillated more slowly or rapidly according to its less or greater length, he immediately applied it to the medical purpose of discovering the state of the pulse; and the practice was adopted by many Italian physicians for a considerable time. Through the good offices of Ubaldi, who admired his talents and foresaw their future development, Galilei became introduced to the grand-duke Ferdinand I. de' Medici, who appointed him mathematical lecturer at Pisa (1589), though at an inconsiderable salary. Here he commenced a series of experiments on motion, which however were not published until long after, and then only a scanty portion. This circumstance is probably not much to be regretted, since his inferences on the relation of velocity to space were incorrect at first; but he had learned enough from his experimental course to perceive that most of the scholastic assumed laws of motion were untenable. The mind of Galilei becoming thus unfettered from the chain of authority, he resolved to examine the rival systems of astronomy-the Ptolemaic, with its cumbrous machinery of cycles and epicycles, eccentrics and primum mobile, and the Copernican, which, from its simplicity and gradually-discovered accordance with phænomena, was silently gaining proselytes amongst the ablest observers and mathematicians. He soon discovered and proved the futile nature of the objections then usually made against it, which were founded on a complete ignorance of the laws of mechanics, or on some misapplied quotations from Aristotle, the Bible, and the Fathers; and having also observed, that many who had at first believed the former system, had changed in favour of the latter, while GALILEI, VINCENTIO, a noble Florentine, and father none of those attached to the latter changed to the Ptolemaic of the illustrious Galileo Galilei, was born in the early half hypothesis-that the former required almost daily some new of the sixteenth century, and studied music under Zarlino, emendation, some additional crystalline sphere, to accomthough he did not hesitate to attack the opinions of his mas-modate itself to the varying aspects of the celestial phænoter, in a Discorso intorno all' Opere del Zarlino, and after-mena-that the appearance and disappearance of new stars wards in his great work, the Dialogo della Musica antica e moderna, a folio volume, printed at Florence in 1581. This work, which displays vast erudition and laborious research, has afforded much assistance to the musical historians of later days: but the author occasionally betrays a hardiness in assertion, of which his more philosophic son was never guilty. He was an exquisite performer on the lute, an instrument, he tells us, that was better manufactured in Engand than in any other part of Europe. He was a rigid Aristoxenian, and his prejudices in favour of the antients were strong; nevertheless his Dialogo is well worth the notice of the curious inquirer into musical history. GALILE'I, GALILE'O, who is most commonly known under the latter, which was his Christian name, was the son of Vincentio Galilei. He was born at Pisa, in Tuscany, on the 15th of February, 1564. Having acquired, during his boyhood, and under adverse contradicted the pretended incorruptibility of the heavenly bodies, together with other reflections which he has collected in his dialogues,- he became a convert to the Copernican system, and, in his old age, its most conspicuous martyr. So strong however were the religious prejudices on the subject of the quiescence of the earth, that Galilei thought it prudent to continue to lecture on the hypothesis of Ptolemy, until time should afford a favourable opportunity to destroy the visionary fabric by incontestable facts. One of the false doctrines which he first combated was that bodies of unequal weights would fall through the same altitude in unequal times: thus, if one body were ten times as heavy as another, it should fall through 100 yards while the lighter had only fallen through ten. But though the experiment was performed from the leaning tower at Pisa, and both bodies reached the ground at almost the same instant (the small difference, as Galilei rightly observed, |