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be referred not to the sixteenth, but to the twenty-first year of Constantine, which is the three hundred and twenty-sixth year of Christ. This is therefore an interpolation, done by a modern hand. For these reasons we concur with Chamier,* Salmasius, † Daillé, ‡ and others, in esteeming the story of the invention of the cross a mere invention and a fable.11

XVII. But to return from this digression.-Let us now examine the MODE OF CRUCIFIXION, and consider in order, the circumstances which preceded, accompanied, and followed the fixing of the person to the cross. Three things were customary before the fixing to the cross, to wit, Beating, Imposition of the cross. on the condemned that he might bear it to the place of crucifixion, and Stripping him of his clothes.

XVIII. The Romans were accustomed first to beat all that were condemned to capital punishment. Hence those ancient forms: "Go, sergeant, bind the hands, "beat, muffle up the head, suspend on the ignominious “tree;"§ and, "Sergeant, take away, strip, beat, exe"cute the law, chastise." This castigation was expressly appointed to precede crucifixion. "Others being scourged," says Livy, "were fastened to the "cross." And at the destruction of Jerusalem, the Jews, according to Josephus," were, in the first place, "whipped, and tortured with all sorts of stripes, and "then crucified."** Similar examples occur very often

• Panstrat. lib. xxii. cap. 4.

+ Epist. de Cruc. p. 368. et seq.

De Object. cult. relig. lib. v. cap. 1.

§ I lictor, colliga manus, verberato, caput obnubito, arbori infelici suspendito.

Summove lictor, despolia, verbera, lege age, animadverte.

Alii verberati, crucibus affixi, lib. xxxiv.

** Lib. v. Halose cap. 32.

11 See NOTE XI.

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in history. A great number are collected by Casaubon on the first book of Polybius, where he treats of the authors of the Rhegian crime.12 This beating was sometimes performed with rods, which was considered the milder and less disgraceful form; but more frequently with whips, which was at once more dishonourable and more severe,-particularly when the whips were sharpened with birds' claws and small bones. Owing to the cruelty of the servants employed to in"flict the punishment, many," according to Ulpianus, "perished under scourges of that sort."* It must likewise be observed, that the scourge was not always administered in the same place or at the same time; for it was sometimes done in the Prætorium, before the sufferer was led away, and sometimes, on the road, whilst he was led forth to the cross. The last appears to have been the more ancient practice.

XIX. The Lord of glory, it is evident, suffered scourging before he was nailed to the cross. But it deserves examination, whether this was done in conformity to the Roman custom, or for a different reason. Matthew seems to intimate the former: "And when "he had scourged Jesus, he delivered him to be cruci"fied." Mark's expression is of the same import. But it is clear from John,d that scourging was employed by Pilate for the purpose of pacifying, if possible, the enraged minds of the Jews, that they might desist from requiring the death of Christ; to which the words of Pilate in Luke have also a reference; " I will there"fore chastise him, and let him go." We cannot em

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brace the opinion of those who maintain, that Christ underwent two scourgings in so short a space, the one previous to the passing of the sentence according to the private intention and appointment of Pilate, of which John gives an account; the other posterior to the pronouncing of the sentence, according to the public custom of the Romans, which is mentioned by Matthew and Mark. To us the matter appears to have stood thus. Pilate saw the unrelenting hatred of the rulers and the people against our Lord, since, in spite of all his exertions to the contrary, they obstinately demanded the crucifixion of Jesus. Knowing, too, that if this extreme punishment were ultimately to be resorted to, it could not be inflicted till he were previously tortured with the scourge, he judged it proper to begin with this, hoping meanwhile that the Jews, melted by the sight, would no longer urge crucifixion. Thus Pilate, in scourging Christ, had two objects in view; first to incline, by so sad a spectacle, the exasperated minds of the Jews to pity; or if this did not succeed, and he were absolutely compelled to deliver up Christ to the cross, to secure in this respect the observance of the Roman custom. Matthew and Mark point out the latter, and the other Evangelists the former part of the design.

xx. That our Lord was scourged in a manner truly severe and unmerciful, may easily be inferred from the end which Pilate expected to attain. He knew the obdurate spirits of the Jews, and was aware that it would have been vain and absurd to endeavour to soften them into sentiments of compassion by any other than a most miserable spectacle. Probably also, Christ was not beaten with rods, but with scourges; not merely because the latter were more common and more condu

cive to the purpose Pilate had in view than the other; but also because it is favoured by the very words of the Evangelists, φραγελλωσις, and μαστιγωσις. The first of these terms is a corruption of the Latin word flagellum, a whip; and the last is derived from paori, a scourge, a switch. Many of the ancients were of opinion that Christ was bound to a pillar while he endured the scourge; nor is this foreign to the Roman usage. But it requires great credulity to believe, that that pillar still remained in the days of Jerome, and, stained with our Lord's blood, supported the portico of a church. The additions made to the gospel-history by modern discoveries respecting the sharp-pointed scourges and the number of the stripes, and other circumstances, are the bold inventions of men who delight in fables. To contrive or propagate falsehoods, is to render truly preposterous returns to Christ for his compassion to us. Nor are we to imagine that we fail to put their proper value on his sufferings, unless we exaggerate them by our own idle fabrications.

XXI. Further, his own cross was laid upon the unhappy person condemned to crucifixion, that he might bear it to the place of punishment. Artemidorus says; "The man who is about to be nailed to the cross, in "the first place carries it."* This circumstance formed part of the shame and disgrace; and it afforded a salutary lesson, which Plutarch has elegantly illustrated in his discourse "on the slowness of the divine venge"ance." As every malefactor carries forth his cross upon his body, so every one by his wickedness is the author of his own calamities, and produces his sorrows out of his own bowels.

* Lib. ii. cap. 41.

↑ De tarda numinis vindicta.

XXII. In the same manner Christ also bore his cross, until being exhausted, an assistant and follower was granted to him, or rather substituted in his place. That relief, however, was doubtless given by those who conducted him to Calvary, not from mercy, but from cruelty; for they were afraid lest he should faint by the way, while they wished rather to see him breathing and expiring on the cross.

XXIII. In fine, crucifixion was preceded by stripping the malefactors of their clothes. They hung on the cross naked as when they came forth from their mother's womb. Artemidorus says; "They are crucified "naked."* We read in Arrian; "In the bath you "were divested of your garments, and stretched your"self forth, as those that are crucified." In the Acts of Pionius the martyr, who was a presbyter of Smyrna, it is also said; "When, therefore, animated by a sted"fast faith, he had come with alacrity to the place of "execution, of his own accord he stripped himself of "his clothes. Then turning his thoughts to the honour " and chastity of his body, he was filled with inexpres"sible joy, and looking upwards to heaven, and render

ing thanks to God who had thus preserved him, he "stretched himself on the tree, and delivered his body "to the soldier to fasten it with nails." From these testimonies we may collect, it should seem, that even those parts which nature requires to be covered, were exposed to the view of all.

XXIV. And since this was usually done to crucified persons, why should we contend, in opposition to the

* Lib. ii. сар. 58.

+ Dissert. lib. iv. сар. 26.

+ Apud Baronium, tom. ii. ad An. ccliv. num. 19.

f John xix. 17.

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