civil and criminal procedure, as both fell under the same principle of obe dience to God's law.

21

§ 6. The Seventy Elders associated with Moses were a special council, not only for the administration of justice, but to assist in the government. They must not be confounded with the Sanhedrim, or great ecclesiastical council of Seventy (so often mentioned in the New Testament), which was only founded after the Captivity.

C. LAWS CIVIL.

37. It has already been observed that the principles of the civil law of Moses are based on the religious position of the people, as the holy children of God and brethren to one another. Its details doubtless embodied much of the old patriarchal law, and in some instances the circumstances are recorded out of which new laws arose. Our limits will permit us to give only a brief analysis of these laws, as well as of the criminal laws. Their chief provisions may be classified as follows:

I. THE LAW OF PERSONS.

8. (a) OF FATHER AND SON.-The power of a Father to be held sacred; cursing, or smiting (Ex. xxi. 15, 17; Lev. xx. 9), or stubborn and willful disobedience, to be considered capital crimes. But uncontrolled power of life and death was apparently refused to the father, and vested only in the congregation (Deut. xxi. 18-21).

Right of the First-born to a double portion of the inheritance not to be set aside by partiality (Deut. xxi. 15–17).22

Inheritance by Daughters to be allowed in default of sons, provided that heiresses married in their own tribe (Num. xxvii. 6-8; coinp. xxxvi.). Daughters unmarried to be entirely dependent on their father (Num. xxx. 3-5).

§ 9. (6) HUSBAND AND WIFE.—The power of a Husband to be so great that a wife could never be sui juris, or enter independently into any engagement even before God (Num. xxx. 6-15). A widow or divorced wife became independent, and did not again fall under her father's power (ver. 9).

Divorce (for uncleanness) allowed, but to be formal and irrevocable (Deut. xxiv. 1-4).

Marriage within certain degrees forbidden (Lev. xviii. etc.).

A Slave Wife, whether bought or captive, not to be actual property, nor to be sold; if ill-treated, to be, ipso facto, free (Ex. xxi. 7-9; Deut. xxi, 10-14).

Slander against a wife's virginity to be punished by fine, and by deprival of power of divorce; on the other hand, ante-connubial uncleanness in her to be punished by death (Deut. xxii. 13-21).

The raising up of seed (Levirate law) a formal right to be claimed by the widow, under pain of infamy, with a view to preservation of families (Deut xxv. 5-10).

§ 10. (c) MASTER and Slave.—Power of master so far limited, that death

1 Num. xi. 16-25.

first-born, see 1 Sam. xx. 29 ("my brother,

72 For an example of the authority of the he hath commanded me to be there"

under actual chastisement was punishable (Ex. xxi. 20); and maiming was to give liberty ipso facto (ver. 26, 27).

The Hebrew Slave to be freed at the Sabbatical year, 23 and provided with necessaries (his wife and children to go with him only if they came to his master with him), unless by his own formal act he consented to be a perpetual slave (Ex. xxi. 1-6; Deut. xv. 12-18). In any case (it would seem), to be freed at the Jubilee (Lev. xxv. 10), with his children. If sold to a resident alien, to be always redeemable, at a price proportional to the distance of the Jubilee (Lev. xxv. 47-54).

Foreign Slaves to be held and inherited as property forever (Lev. xxv. 45, 46) and fugitive slaves from foreign nations not to be given up (Deut. xxiii. 15).

§ 11. (d) STRANGERS.-They seem never to have been sui juris, or able to protect themselves, and accordingly protection and kindness toward them are enjoined as a sacred duty (Ex. xxii. 21; Lev. xix. 33, 34). These strangers correspond to the class afterward called Proselytes.

II. LAW OF THINGS.

§ 12. (a) Laws of Land (and PROPERTY).—(1.) All Land to be the prop erty of God alone, and its holders to be deemed His tenants (Lev. xxv. 23). (2.) All sold Land therefore to return to its original owners at the Jubilee, and the price of sale to be calculated accordingly; and redemption on equitable terms to be allowed at all times (xxv. 25-27).

A House sold, to be redeemable within a year; and, if not redeemed, to pass away altogether (xxv. 29, 30).

But the Houses of the Levites, or those in unwalled villages, to be redeemable at all times, in the same way as land; and the Levitical suburbs to be inalienable (xxv. 31-34).

(3.) Land or Houses sanctified, or tithes or unclean firstlings, to be capable of being redeemed, at the addition of one-fifth their value (calculated according to the distance from the Jubilec-year by the priest); if devoted by the owner and unredeemed, to be hallowed at the Jubilee forever, and given to the priests; if only by a possessor, to return to the owner at the Jubilee (xxvii. 14-34).

§ 13. b) LAWS OF DEBT.-(1.) All Debts (to an Israelite) to be released at Le 7th (Sabbatical) year; a blessing promised to obedience, and a curse on refusal to lend (Deut. xv. 1-11).

(2.) Usury (from Israelites) not to be taken (Ex. xxii. 25-27; Dent. xxiii. 19, 20).

(3.) Pledges not to be insolently or ruinously exacted (Deut. xxiv. 6, 10–13, 17, 18).

23 The difficulty of enforcing this law is seen in Jer. xxxiv. 8-16,

24 Heiresses to marry in their own triba (Num. xxvii 6-8, xxxvi.).

§ 14. (c) TAXATION.—(1.) Census-money, a poll-tax (of a half-shekel) to be paid for the service of the tabernacle (Ex. xxx. 12–16).

All spoil in war to be halved; of the combatant's half, th, of the people's, th, to be paid for a "heave-offering" to Jehovah.

2.) Tithes.

(a) Tithes of all produce to be given for maintenance of the Levites (Num. xviii. 20–24).

(Of this, th to be paid as a heave-offering for maintenance of the priests, Exod. xxx. 24-32.)

(B) Second Tithe to be bestowed in religious feasting and charity, either at the Holy Place, or every 3d year at home (?) (Deut. xiv. 22-28).

(y) First-fruits of corn, wine, and oil (at least 7th, generally 4th, for the priests) to be offered at Jerusalem, with a solemn declaration of dependence on God the King of Israel (Deut. xxvi. 1-15; Num. xviii. 12, 13).

Firstlings of clean beasts; the redemption-money (5 shekels) of man, and (half-shekel, or one shekel) of unclean beasts, to be given to the priests after sacrifice (Num. xviii. 15-18).

(3.) Poor Laws.

(a) Gleanings (in field or vineyard) to be a legal right of the poor (Lev. xix. 9, 10; Deut. xxiv. 19-22).

(B) Slight Trespass (eating on the spot) to be allowed as legal (Deut. xxiii. 24, 25).

(7) Second Tithe (see 2 ẞ) to be given in charity.

(6) Wages to be paid day by day (Deut. xxiv. 15).

(4.) Maintenance of Priests (Num. xviii. 8-32).

(a) Tenth of Levites' Tithe. (See 2 a.)

(B) The heave and wave offerings (breast and right shoulder of all peace-offerings).

(y) The meat and sin offerings to be eaten solemnly, and only in the Holy Place.

(d) First-fruits and redemption-money. (See 2 y.)

(E) Price of all devoted things, unless specially given for a sacred service. A man's service, or that of his household, to be redeemed at 50 shekels for man, 30 for woman, 20 for boy, and 10 for girl.

D. LAWS CRIMINAL.

§ 15. (a) OFFENSES AGAINST GOD (of the nature of treason).-First Commandment.—Acknowledgment of false gods (Ex. xxii. 20), as, e. g., Moloch (Lev. xx. 1-5), and generally all idolatry (Deut. xiii., xvii. 2-5).

Second Commandment.—Witchcraft and false prophecy (Ex. xxii. 18; Deut. xviii. 9-22; Lev. xix. 31).

Third Commandment.-Blasphemy (Lev. xxiv. 15, 16).

Fourth Commandment.—Sabbath-breaking (Num. xv. 32-36).—Punishment, in all cases, death by stoning. Idolatrous cities to be utterly destroyed.

§ 16. (b) OFFENSES AGAINST MAN.--Fifth Commandment.-Disobedience to, or cursing or smiting of parents (Ex. xxi. 15, 17; Lev. xx. 9; Deut. xxi. 18-21), to be punished by death by stoning, publicly adjudged and inflicted;

so also of disobedience to the priests (as judges) or Supreme Judge.—Comp. 1 K. xxi. 10–14 (Naboth); 2 Chr. xxiv. 21 (Zechariah).

Sixth Commandment.—(1.) Murder, to be punished by death without sanctuary or reprieve, or satisfaction (Ex. xxi. 12, 14; Deut. xix. 11-13). Death of a slave actually under the rod to be punished (Ex. xxi. 20, 21). (2.) Death by Negligence to be punished by death (Ex. xxi. 28–30). (3.) Accidental Homicide, the avenger of blood to be escaped by flight to the cities of refuge till the death of the high-priest (Num. xxxv. 9-28; Deut. iv. 4143, xix. 4-10). (4.) Uncertain Murder, to be expiated by formal disavowal and sacrifice by the elders of the nearest city (Deut. xxi. 1-9). (5.) Assault to be punished by lex talionis, or damages (Ex.-xxi. 18, 19, 22-25; Lev.

xxiv. 19, 20).

Seventh Commandment.—(1.) Adultery to be punished by death of both offenders; the rape of a married or betrothed woman, by death of the offender (Deut. xxii. 13–27). (2.) Rape or Seduction of an unbetrothed virgin, to be compensated by marriage, with dowry (50 shekels), and without power of divorce; or, if she be refused, by payment of full dowry (Ex. xxii. 16, 17; Deut. xxii. 28, 29). (3.) Unlawful Marriages (incestuons, etc.) to be punished, some by death, some by childlessness (Lev. xx.).

Eighth Commandment.—(1.) Theft to be punished by fourfold or double restitution; a nocturnal robber might be slain as an outlaw (Ex. xxii. 1-4). (2.) Trespass and injury of things lent to be compensated (Ex. xxii. 5–15). (3.) Perversion of Justice (by bribes, threats, etc.), and especially oppression of strangers, strictly forbidden (Ex. xxiii. 9, etc.). (4.) Kidnapping to be punished by death (Deut. xxiv. 7).

Ninth Commandment.-False Witness to be punished by lex talionis (Ex. xxiii. 1-3; Deut. xix. 16-21). Slander of a wife's chastity by fine, and loss of power of divorce (Deut. xxii. 18, 19).

Tenth Commandment.—The sin of coveting could not be brought under the scope of a definite criminal law. But the numerous acts of meanness, injustice, oppression, and unkindness, which are its consequences, are repeatedly forbidden, and their punishment is referred to the curse which God would bring on the disobedient. Indeed the final and highest system of rewards and punishments is to be found in the "Blessing and the Curse" which Moses set before the people.

JOSHUA TO SAUL; OR, TRANSITION FROM THE THEOCRACY TO THE MONARCHY. A.M. 2553-2948.

B.C. 1451-1095.

CHAPTER XV.

THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE HOLY LAND.

§1. Names of the land. § 2. Its size. § 3. Its position on the map of the world. § 4. Its mountainous character. § 5. Divided by Mount Carmel-Plain of Esdraelon. § 6. Exact limits of the Holy Land-Galilee, Samaria, Judæa. § 7. The water-shed of the country and the valleys on each side. § 8. Aspect of the south country (Judæa). § 9. Aspect of Judæa in ancient times. § 10. Aspect of the central country (Samaria). § 11. Aspect of the northern country (Galilee). § 12. Habitations of the Israelites on the hills. § 13. The maritime plainsThe Philistine Plain and the Plain of Sharon. § 14. The Philistine Plain continued independent of the Israelites. § 15. The port of the Israelites-Joppa. § 16. The Jordan. § 17. Appearance of the country to the Israelites.

§1. BEFORE accompanying the Israelites into the Land of Promise, it will be well to take a brief survey of its physi

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