He proceeds to compare philosophy with a happy and wellgoverned city, and to represent himself as seeking the way to it. Many persons offer themselves as guides, and point out different roads-one leading to the east and another to the west; one to the south and another to the north; one passing through a pleasant country, others rough and laborious, but all supposed to bring the traveller to the same city, (c. 22-5.) "Thus I am still left in doubt and uncertainty, for at the entrance of every path I am met by a man, worthy no doubt of all confidence, who stretches out his hand and desires me to follow him, telling me that his is the only right way, and that all the other guides are wandering in ignorance, having neither come from the city themselves, nor being able to direct others to it. The next and the next I meet tells me the same story of his own path, and abuses the other guides; and so will every one of them. It is this variety of ways which distracts and confounds us; where each guide contends for and praises his own, I cannot tell which to follow, or how I am ever to arrive at this happy city," (c. 26.)

Hermotimus now says that he can remove all his friend's doubts: let him trust those who have gone the journey before him, and he cannot err. Lycinus, however, is not satisfied with this receipt: each guide (he says) praises his own road exclusively: one takes Plato's, another Zeno's, but no one knows more than his own, and it is impossible to be sure that the road leads, after all, to the right city: the guide may be mistaken, (c. 27.)

Hermotimus then assures him that he may go the whole round, but he will never find better guides than the Stoics. Let him follow Zeno and Chrysippus, and they will lead him aright, (c. 29.)

Lycinus repeats that this assurance is unsatisfactory, and that a similar one would be given by the Platonists and Epicureans of their leaders. Each thinks his own sect the best, and vaunts his own guide. Besides, you are only acquainted with your own doctrines, and you condemn those of the other sects without knowing them. Hermotimus denies this. The Stoic teachers (he says) in their lectures always mention the tenets of the other schools, and refute them, (c. 32.)

Lycinus treats this argument as futile. The other philosophers would not (he replies) be content to be so judged. Your philosophers set up men of straw, in order that they may be easily knocked down. Such a controversy is no real conflict, but a sham fight, in which the victory is certain beforehand. "In short, (concludes

Lycinus,) while it remains uncertain which is the best sect in philosophy, I am resolved not to follow any one, as that would be an affront upon all the rest," (c. 34.)

Hermotimus insists that it is needless to study the other philosophies. Truth (he says) may be learnt from the Stoics without going to all the other sects. If a man told you that two and two are four, it would not be necessary for you to suspend your belief until you had consulted all persons versed in arithmetical science, (c. 35.)

Lycinus denies the applicability of this argument. The subjects about which the philosophic sects differ are doubtful; there is no mode of resolving the doubt, and no common agreement, (c. 36.)

With regard to philosophy, the only man (he continues) in whom I can repose confidence is one who has mastered the doctrines of all the sects, has tried them all, and has chosen that which, by his own experience, he is satisfied is the only one which can guide him to true happiness. If we can meet with such a man, our labour is at an end. But such a man (says Hermotimus) cannot easily be

found, (c. 46.)

The two disputants then enter into a calculation as to the length of time which must be allowed for obtaining a familiar knowledge of the tenets of each sect, and they reckon ten sects at twenty years each, (c. 48.) Hermotimus remarks that, make what reduction they will, very few persons would be able to go through all the sects, though they began as soon as they were born. On this Lycinus repeats, that unless a man knows all the systems, he cannot select the best, except by chance; he can only stumble upon it accidentally in the dark, (c. 49.)

Hermotimus complains that Lycinus requires impossibilities. He will neither accept the opinion of those who judge for themselves, unless they have lived the life of a phoenix, nor will he follow those who are satisfied with the consent of the multitude. Lycinus asks who are the multitude? If it consists of men who understand the subject, one will suffice; but if of the ignorant, their number does not influence his belief, (c. 53.) Hermotimus then returns to selfjudgment. It may be right (he admits) to inquire into the opinions of each sect, but the length of time assigned by Lycinus is excessive. A judgment may be formed from a portion or sample-ex ungue leonem. Lycinus replies that when the whole is known, it can be judged from a part; but in this case the whole is not known. If the philosophers had thought their principles simple and easy of

acquisition, they probably would not have written so many thousand volumes, (c. 54-6.) He adds, that if his friend is impatient of the time and labour necessary for examination, he had better send for a diviner, or draw lots for the best, (c. 57.)

Hermotimus inquires if he is to give up the matter in despair, unless he can live a hundred years? (c. 63.) Lycinus then undertakes to point out the qualifications requisite for inquiring into the subject. These are acuteness of mind, long-continued labour and study, and perfect impartiality, (c. 64.) Even with these qualifications, a person is not secured against error. It is possible that all the different sects of philosophy may be in error, and that the truth has not yet been discovered, (c. 65, 66.)

Lycinus then proceeds to another objection. He asks his friend whether, in all the sects, there are not teachers who say that they alone understand the subject, and that all the others are mere pretenders to knowledge. Hermotimus assents to this proposition, and admits that it is difficult to distinguish between the true philosophers and the impostors, (c. 68.) If, therefore, (says Lycinus,) you can meet with a master who himself knows, and can teach you the art of demonstration, and how to determine in doubtful cases, your labour is at an end, for then what is good and true will immediately appear; falsehood will be detected; you will be able to make choice of the best philosophy-will acquire that happiness which you have so long been in search of, and possess everything that is desirable. Hermotimus is delighted with this view, and declares that he will instantly look out for such a guide, (c. 69.) Lycinus, however, immediately destroys his satisfaction by showing that this man, if found, could not be relied on, until another person was discovered, who could decide if he was a safe guide, and so on, to a third. His demonstrations, too, would be called in question; everything would revolve in a circle of uncertainty, and nothing would be determined, (c. 70.).

After some further arguments of Lycinus against the Stoic system in particular, Hermotimus owns that he is convinced of his error, and declares his intention to renounce philosophy henceforth, (c. 83.) Lycinus adds that he should have used precisely the same arguments if his friend had belonged to any one of the other philosophic sects, (c. 85.)

CHAPTER V.

ON THE UTILITY AND PROPER PROVINCE OF AUTHORITY.

§ 1. Ir has been shown briefly in Chapter II., that a large portion of the opinions of mankind are necessarily derived from authority. Children necessarily imbibe the opinions of their parents and teachers; the time and means for the independent investigation of speculative opinions on a large number of subjects are wanting; and on questions of practice it is necessary for a man to be guided by the advice of professional persons, having had a special training and experience in the matter.

We have, in a subsequent chapter, attempted to trace the marks of a trustworthy authority in matters of speculation and practice, and have described the means by which trustworthy authority is gradually formed. This description, as we have further shown, does not apply, without considerable qualifications, to religious questions.

We now turn to consider what are the proper uses of authority, and what are the circumstances in which it can be resorted to with advantage, for the guidance of opinion, and the management of the affairs of life, both private and public.

As to speculative questions of science and philosophy, every person ought, as far as his leisure and opportunities for reading and reflection will permit, to attempt to form for himself an independent judgment. Every person, however, will find in numerous subjects that he

is unable to go through the processes necessary for forming such a judgment; and, with respect to these, he ought, in the choice of his authority, to be guided by the maxims stated above. Vita brevis, ars longa, says the old Hippocratean aphorism;* and even when a person succeeds in mastering a great variety of subjects, the result is not always satisfactory. Men of encyclopædiacal minds are not always perspicuous or precise; still less often are they original and inventive. Multum legere, non multa, is a good maxim for all who desire to extend the bounds of a science, or to be sound practitioners in any art or profession.

The division of scientific labour, like the division of mechanical labour, increases both its productiveness and its precision. Where the attention is concentrated upon the same intellectual object, the result is a performance at once more finished and more complete. It is, however, necessary that men of comprehensive minds should survey the whole circle of the sciences, should understand their mutual relations, and adapt them to each other, as, in the progress of discovery, they change their respective positions. Those who devote the chief part of their thoughts and studies to one science, ought to be aware of its place in the scientific system, and to appreciate the extent to which it may be influenced by the cultivation of other sciences. They ought to avoid that narrowing influence which is produced by restricting the mind to the exclusive contemplation of one subject. Above all, every person should, as far as his means extend, make himself master of the methods of scientific investigation, so as to be able to judge whether, in the treatment of any question, a sound and correct method,

* See Hippocrat., Aphorism. I. § 1, (tom. iv. p. 458, ed. Littré.)