as an inuer and secret sense. From the Persian philosophy (see PHILOSOPHY) they took the notion of great periodic changes, distinguishing the old and the new age as the world that now is,' and that which is to come' (olam haseh and olam habah). The former was the times of the Old Testament; the latter, the times of the Messiah. This Messianic period the Kabbala found set forth in the laws, histories, usages, and persons of the sacred writings; and it was its special business to discover the spiritual features of the future world in the outer and verbal import of the Old Testament. As the Kabbalists professed, under Divine guidance, to deal with the hidden sense of the Divine Word, so they had full scope for the indulgence of a prolific imagination, which of necessity tended to abuse. In the lapse of ages this abuse went on growing, until the professors of Kabbalistic skill laid claim to an acquaintance with occult powers in nature and natural bodies, by which they could transmute the baser into the precious metals, and exert an irresistible control over health and sickness, life and death, nay, over good and bad spirits. In earlier times their skill of mind was employed in speculations on the Divine Essence, in which they constructed a species of philosophy which, fantastic as it seems in some of its features, is scarcely less rash and groundless than what sometimes passes as the sober thoughts of Christian divines touching the attributes of God. Borrowing from the Pythagorean school the practice of dissertating on powers attributed to certain numbers, they indulged themselves in speculations in which fancy furnished the text and the love of novelty gave the comment.

The Kabbala comprises three elements, I. the symbolical; II. the dogmatic; III. the speculative or metaphysical. The symbolical furnishes the means of finding in Scripture an inner or mystic sense, different from the literal. It works by three operations: 1, themoura; 2, geometria; 3, notarikon. Themoura (change, permutation) consists in the arbitrary transposition of the letters of a word; or in the substitution of others, so as to form a new term. Sheshach (Jer. xxv. 26), the name of an unknown place, is converted into Babel by a process which con. sists generally in substituting the last letter of the Hebrew alphabet, T, for the first, A; the last but one, Sh, for the second, B; and so forth; and vice versa. Geometria gives exclusive attention to the numerical value of letters, and substitutes one word for another. Thus Mashiah (Messiah) consists in Hebrew of letters inaking in all 358. The same is the case with Mahshah, serpent ; whence it is concluded that the Messiah will overcome or replace the serpent. Notarikon unites the initial or final letters of several words, or considers the letters of a single

word as so many words of which they severally form the commencement. Thus the three letters of the word Adam form the initials of the three words Adam, David, Messiah; which shows that by metempsychosis Adam re-appeared in the persons of David and the Messiah. The dogmatic Kabbala treats of angels and demons, and their different classes; of the several divisions or mansions of paradise and hell; of the transmigration of souls, and other mysteries. The visions of Ezekiel furnished scope for this kind of mythological trifling. There God is exhibited as seated on a throne environed by winged animals (i. 4, seq.), whose figures bear a resemblance to others found on the ruins of Persepolis. These probably are symbolical representations connected with local beliefs. The Kabbalists call Ezekiel's vision Mercava, or chariot, and find in it the court of the celestial King, the throne of God surrounded by angels; with which they have connected their doctrine of good and bad spirits. The stars, the different kingdoms of nature; the elements, men, the virtues and passions of men, are all under the influence of angels. The lower world itself is filled with material genii, of both sexes, who hold a middle position between men and angels. The good angels are under the command of Metatron (from the Greek meta thronon, near the throne'), who is also called Sarhappanim, angel of the divine countenance.' The devils are under the sway of Samael, that is Satan and the angel of death. Besides the transmigration of souls partially received by them, the Kabbalists have another mystery, Ibbour, 'impregnation,' that is, the union of two souls in one body, wrought for the purpose of giving succour and strength. Some of their more imaginative fables call to mind passages in Dante and Milton. The speenlative Kabbala had for its aim the bringing into harmony monotheism and the act of creation with the fundamental principle of ancient philosophy, Er nihilo nihil fit; From nothing, nothing is made.' All that exists is derived from God, the eternal source of light. God is known only by his manifestations; God not manifested, is a mere abstraction. This God is from all eternity. Hence he is called the ancient of days,' 'the hidden of the hidden,' also nothing;' and thus the world as created by him came from nothing. This nothing, whence came all things, is unity indivisible and infinite, or En-soph, the cause of causes. The primal light of God-nothing filled all space; it is space itself; every thing virtually was in it; but to manifest itself it must create, that is, unfold itself by emanation. It therefore withdrew within itself in order to cause a void, which afterwards it gradually filled by light which varied in brilliancy, and as it receded from the centre, became more and more imperfect.

of the peculiar condition of the church and circumstances of the writers. A tradition of twenty years might, for all great practical purposes, preserve itself in purity. When, in the next twenty years, writing was placed by the side of tradition, the one would authenticate the other, and the result be a higher kind of testimony than each could have exclusively borne (Luke i. 1-4). And the final voice of the church, given by the affixing of its seal to the canon, c'oses and attests the formation of a body of written evidence, superior to any other known in the whole of literary history, because divine. See the articles CANON, EPISTLES, GOSPEL.

The defenders of Jewish tradition trace back its elements to the earliest periods of their national history. Besides the written law, according to their statement, there always was oral instruction, which passed from father to son, was specially in the custody of the priesthood, and, accumulating from age to age, was at length consigned to writing. The admission of the existence of some sort and degree of tradition in the early Jewish church, is not the admission of its trustworthiness. And until we know as a fact what is now only advanced as a probability, we cannot pronounce an opinion either in favour or disfavour of the substance of the alleged tradition; only we may remark that doctrines or facts which, in their passage down through many centuries, have no other vehicle than the changeful one of oral communication, must, if small and simple at the first, become in the course of time so ample and so degenerate as to lose nearly the whole of their value. In the transmission, a learned body or sacerdotal caste would afford no guarantee of purity, especially if their interests could be promoted by the character of the tradition which they transmitted; and the only security against corruption that could exist, would be the light of day and the force of public opinion. But in Judaism the sanctuary was closed to the people, who could exert no influence over a deposit which was held exclusively in the hands of the priests. The written word would, indeed, have some restraint on the undue growth of tradition; but it happened that the Sacred Scriptures became an almost sealed book for the people at large at the very time when tradition began to make head. While in captivity in Baby. lon, the people lost the power to read the Scriptures in their original tongue. A translation became necessary. This translation at the first was made by word of mouth, as the reader recited the Scriptures in the public assembl, The ignorance which made a translation necessary, rendered exposition and explanations desirable. These were given viva voce in the congregation. Hence ordinary human elements were mixed with Biblical instructions, and that with almost no power of check or correction from the popu

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lar mind; so that new and corrupt forms of opinion were readily introduced, accompa nied with the sanction of divine truth. In course of time, these Chaldaic interpretations were written down. Two learned Jews, Onkelos and Jonathan, formed them into a body to which was given the name of Targums, and which, besides the Aramaic translation of the sacred text, contain remarks, glosses, and explanations, transmitted from mouth to mouth, and taken down from the lips of public teachers. To this expository collection was given the name Midrash, from a Hebrew term originally signifying 'to seek or 'investigate,' but here, to expound' or 'set forth,' that is, divine truth, which it was held could be found only in the sacred books.

Those who were engaged in these exposi tions bore the appellation of Midrashites, a kind of learned class, consisting of pupils and teachers, among whom instruction was given chiefly by questions and answers (Luke ii. 46), and with whom the natural quest of novelty, operating in connection with a fixed and limited circle of ideas, led to the utterance and prevalence of opinions forced and unnatural, if not absurd, and to refinements, hair-splitting subtleties, and moral casuistry, which overlaid and sometimes destroyed the divine law, even while affecting to do it bonour (Matt. xv. 3). Traces of these corrup tions are still found in the Mishna, or that portion of the Talmud in which are preserved the traditions of the ancient Midrashites. The Talmud, or oral instruction, is the great national collection of Jewish tradition. It consists of two portions-the Mishna, or text, and the Gemara, or explanation. It is not easy to define the period to which the statements of the Talmud may with safety be referred. The Mishna, as we now possess it, was formed, about 219 A. D., by Jehuda the holy. It treats in six classes, which consist of some sixty pieces, of, I. Prayers and blessings, agriculture, sacerdotal qualities: II. The sabbath, festivals, temple-dues; III. Marriage laws and vows; IV. Duties, criminal procedure, morals, and the authority of the law; V. The temple sacrifices and priestly rights; and VI. Clean and unclean. The Gemara is said to extend down to the fifth century of our era. In the expositions which it offers are incorporated Hebrew fragments, such as narratives, poems, mystical explanations of the powers of letters, &c. There are two Gemaras-the Palestinian or Jerusalem, and the Babylonian.

Among the Midrashites was formed a special class, designated Kabbalists. The earliest Kabbala-that is, revealed mysterieswas a collection of spiritual explanations, which by degrees some of the Midrashites drew from the doctrines of the Chaldee, Persian, Greek, and especially the new Platonie philosophy, and ascribed to the sacred books

as an inner and secret sense. From the Persian philosophy (see PHILOSOPHY) they took the notion of great periodic changes, distinguishing the old and the new age as the world that now is,' and that which is to come' (olam haseh and olam habah). The former was the times of the Old Testament; the latter, the times of the Messiah. This Messianic period the Kabbala found set forth in the laws, histories, usages, and persons of the sacred writings; and it was its special business to discover the spiritual features of the future world in the outer and verbal import of the Old Testament. As the Kabbalists professed, under Divine guidance, to deal with the hidden sense of the Divine Word, so they had full scope for the indulgence of a prolific imagination, which of necessity tended to abuse. In the lapse of ages this abuse went on growing, until the professors of Kabbalistic skill laid claim to an acquaintance with occult powers in nature and natural bodies, by which they could transmute the baser into the precious metals, and exert an irresistible control over health and sickness, life and death, nay, over good and bad spirits. In earlier times their skill of mind was employed in speculations on the Divine Essence, in which they constructed a species of philosophy which, fantastic as it seems in some of its features, is scarcely less rash and groundless than what sometimes passes as the sober thoughts of Christian divines touching the attributes of God. Borrowing from the Pythagorean school the practice of dissertating on pow ers attributed to certain numbers, they indulged themselves in speculations in which fancy furnished the text and the love of novelty gave the comment.

The Kabbala comprises three elements, I. the symbolical; II. the dogmatic; III. the speculative or metaphysical. The symbolical furnishes the means of finding in Scripture an inner or mystic sense, different from the literal. It works by three operations: 1, themoura; 2, geometria; 3, notarikon. Themoura (change, permutation) consists in the arbitrary transposition of the letters of a word; or in the substitution of others, so as to form a new term. Sheshach (Jer. xxv. 26), the name of an unknown place, is converted into Babel by a process which con. sists generally in substituting the last letter of the Hebrew alphabet, T, for the first, A; the last but one, Sh, for the second, B; and so forth; and vice verså. Geometria gives exclusive attention to the numerical value of letters, and substitutes one word for another. Thus Mashiah (Messiah) consists in Hebrew of letters inaking in all 358. The same is the case with Mahshah, serpent ; whence it is concluded that the Messiah will overcome or replace the serpent. Notarikon unites the initial or final letters of several words, or considers the letters of a single

word as so many words of which they severally form the commencement. Thus the three letters of the word Adam form the initials of the three words Adam, David, Messiah; which shows that by metempsychosis Adam re-appeared in the persons of David and the Messiah. The dogmatic Kabbala treats of angels and demons, and their different classes; of the several divisions or mansions of paradise and hell; of the transmigration of souls, and other mysteries. The visions of Ezekiel furnished scope for this kind of mythological trifling. There God is exhibited as seated on a throne environed by winged animals (i. 4, seq.), whose figures bear a resemblance to others found on the ruins of Persepolis. These probably are symbolical representations connected with local beliefs. The Kabbalists call Ezekiel's vision Mercava, or chariot, and find in it the court of the celestial King, the throne of God surrounded by angels; with which they have connected their doctrine of good and bad spirits. The stars, the different kingdoms of nature; the elements, men, the virtues and passions of men, are all under the influence of angels. The lower world itself is filled with material genii, of both sexes, who hold a middle position between men and angels. The good angels are under the command of Metatron (from the Greek meta thronon, near the throne'), who is also called Sarhappanim, angel of the divine countenance.' The devils are under the sway of Samael, that is Satan and the angel of death. Besides the transmigration of souls partially received by them, the Kabbalists have another mystery, Ibbour, 'impregnation,' that is, the union of two souls in one body, wrought for the purpose of giving succour and strength. Some of their more imaginative fables call to mind passages in Dante and Milton. The speenlative Kabbala had for its aim the bringing into harmony monotheism and the act of creation with the fundamental principle of ancient philosophy, Ex nihilo nihil fit; From nothing, nothing is made.' All that exists is derived from God, the eternal source of light. God is known only by his manifestations; God not manifested, is a mere abstraction. This God is from all eternity. Hence he is called the ancient of days,' 'the hidden of the hidden,' also nothing;' and thus the world as created by him came from nothing. This nothing, whence came all things, is unity indivisible and infinite, or En-soph, the cause of causes. The primal light of God-nothing filled all space; it is space itself; every thing virtually was in it; but to manifest itself it must create, that is, unfold itself by emanation. It therefore withdrew within itself in order to cause a void, which afterwards it gradually filled by light which varied in brilliancy, and as it receded from the centre, became more and more imperfect.

The En-soph originally manifested itself by putting forth a first principle, the prototype of creation, or Macrocosm, which is termed the Son of God, or the primitive man, Adam Kadmon. This is the human figure which in the vision of Ezekiel soars above the animals (i. 26, 27). From Adam Kadmon emanated the creation in four degrees or worlds, the first of which represents the operating qualities of Adam Kadmon, that is, powers or intelligences proceeding from him, and forming at once his essential qualities and the instruments with which he works. These qualities are in number ten, and form the Sephiroth, composed of two sacred numbers-three and seven. The three first Sephiroth are intellectual, the seven others are only attributes. This is the order in which they emanate one from the other. 1

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Their names are, I. Kether, crown; II, Hoemah, wisdom; III. Binah, intelligence; IV. Hesed, grace; V. Gevourah, strength; VI. Tiphereth, beauty; VII. Nezach, triumph; VIII. Hod, glory or majesty; IX. Yesod, foundation; X. Malcouth, kingdom. Here we find the 'Powers' of Philo and the Eons of the Gnostics.

This primary world put forth Beriah, cretion; that is, the beginning of creation. The substances of this second world are all spiritual; but not having emanated immediately from En-soph, they are inferior to Sephiroth. From them, however, comes Yezurah, formation, the world; which contains angels, incorporeal beings surrounded by a luminous medium; also Asiah, fabrication; the last emanation, containing bodies subject to continual variations, which are born and perish, rise and fall. To this belongs all that is of a material nature. This lowest world is the seat of evil.

Man by his nature partakes of the three created worlds, and is on that account termed Microcosm, Olam Katan, or little universe; for all that Adam Kadmon, or Macrocosm (great universe), contains virtually,

man contains really. By his living principle man belongs to the world Asiah; by the soul or breath, to the world Yezirah; and by the intellectual principle or mind, to the world Beriah; the last is a portion of the divinity, and as such pre-existent. Man, then, is composed of two principles-a good and a bad one. It is his duty to give to the former dominion over the latter. After death he is rewarded according to his works; for the mind, Neshamah, is immortal.

These pretended explanations increase the difficulties they are intended to remove, and only serve to exemplify the folly of attempting to dive into the Divine Essence. The transition from mind to matter, from absolute good to evil, remains enveloped in an impenetrable veil. At least, in its results, the system wholly departs from the Mosaic doctrine and ends in pantheistic mists. Instead of God creating all things by his will, we find a system of unintelligible emanations proceeding by some directing fate from we know not what deified nature.

TRANSFIGURATION, THE, is an important event in the history of our Lord, which is clearly related by three evangelists (Matt. xvii. 2, seq. Mark ix. 2, seq. Luke ix. 28, seq.). Matthew and Mark agree in stating hat Jesus, taking with him Peter, James, and John, withdrew up into a high mountain, where he was transfigured; when, according to the latter, his raiment became white as snow, and according to the former, besides this, his face did shine as the sun. Luke, not using the term 'transfigure,' states that while Jesus was on the mount in prayer, the appearance of his countenance became different, and his raiment was white like lightning. Whence it appears that our Lord underwent externally a change which made his face and his raiment assume an unwonted brilliancy-a brilliancy which is represented by that of lightning and that of the sun. These facts are in general well represented by the term 'transfigured,' which in the original strictly signifies a change of form, but is also used of an internal change, as in the transformed' of Rom. xii. 2, and the changed' of 2 Cor. iii. 18. The existence of the word in these two passages, showing on the part of Paul a reference to the transfiguration, proves that the event was known and recognised in the primitive chu.ch. An express allusion also is made to it in an Epistle whose authenticity has been questioned (2 Pet. i. 17, 18), but whose date cannot be placed long after the apostolic age.

The event whose existence and nature are thus made clear, had doubtless a significant import. Peter speaks of then beholding the majesty of Jesus, as well as hearing the Divine attestation as recorded in the Gospels, This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased; hear ye him. On the occa

sion, there were present forms which were in some way known to be those of Moses and Elijah. Of these two emblems of the old and vanishing dispensation, Moses represented the Law, and Elijah the Prophets. They are seen in friendly converse with Jesus. Thus is there intimated that the Law, the Prophets, and the Gospel, are three ministering spirits sent forth of God on the same benign erraud, namely, to instruct, reconcile and save the world. The whole transaction, in harmony with the Eastern method of teaching by actions and symbols, seems to be a striking and impressive lesson given to the three chief apostles, designed and specially fitted to transform their minds, by divesting them of their Jewish notions, and making them aware of the spiritual aims and tendencies of the Messiah's kingdom; and, as subsidiary to this purpose, to exhibit Moses and Elijah as in accordance with Jesus, and Jesus himself as the object of God's special approbation. Such event is in spirit and result entirely congruent with Christianity, whose chief aim is the renewing of the soul of man (Col. iii. 10. 2 Cor. iv. 16. Rom. xii. 2. Tit. iii. 5. John iii. 5) This renewal is by the transfiguration strikingly and solemnly presented in Jesus, who thus stands at the head of his church, a grand symbol of the one needful change. The Transfiguration holds the middle place between the Temptation and the Resurrection of Jesus Christ, being one of the three great events which in a marked manner illustrate the development of the gospel on earth, and the disclosure of the majesty' of its divine promulgator.

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The editor, after mature consideration of the point, is of opinion that the transfiguration could not have taken place on Tabor but on Hermon. On this question he has expressed himself as follows in the 'Modern Judea.'

All the evangelists who speak of the transfiguration have connected it at the distance of six days with the disclosure Christ made to his disciples of his approaching death; this disclosure He made while He and they were on their way northwards from the lake of Gennesareth to the towns of Cesarea Philippi, the populous region at the sources of the Jordan; and the following considerations will satisfy us, we think, that the transfiguration took place on some high mountain in this neighbourhood, to which Christ led His disciples apart by themselves, and was transfigured before them. On the one hand, six days do not appear too many for Christ to spend ministering in the towns of Cesarea Philippi. And on the other, they appear too few to have all the circumstances happen which must have taken place between the conversation regarding his death and the transfiguration, provided that event took place on Tabor. That portion of the journey which remained after the conversation was to

be gone. Some time must be spent in minis. tering in the towns which he was now visiting, and after this a long journey was to be accomplished from Cesarea Philippi south te Tabor. It does not appear that six days could have allowed time for all these events. Moreover, when Christ descended from the mountain after the transfiguration was over, we are told that a great multitude met Him, and amongst the crowd was a certain man who had brought to Him his child possessed of a devil, for the purpose of being cured, a circumstance which implies that the Saviour had been some time in the neighbourhood, and that His presence there was well known. This view of the matter is confirmed, too, by the terms which the evangelists employ to describe the subsequent movements of the disciples. We are told that, after the transfiguration, they departed thence, and passed through Galilee,' and he came to Capernaum.' The phrase passing through Galilee is admirably fitted to describe a journey from Cesarea Philippi to the lake of Gennesareth; but such a phrase would have been altogether improper if applied to the short distance between Tabor and Capernaum; and we may reckon it almost certain that such a phrase would not have been employed in reference to such a journey by a native of the country, and especially by those who on all occasions in speaking of the journeyings of the Saviour have used terms characterised by the highest degree of topographical accuracy and precision. In fine, provided the transfiguration took place on Tabor, Christ, after departing from Cesarea Philippi, of which no notice is given, must have passed to the south of Capernaum, (for Tabor is situated about twenty miles south-west of that town,) and, after the transfiguration, retraced His steps and arrived at Capernaum, in which case He must have gone about forty miles out of His way, for the sole purpose of being transfigured on this mountain, a supposition not very probable.

TREES in Palestine were of old far more abundant than they are now, when the land wears a bare appearance from want of wood. In the period of Hebrew prosperity, the country was adorned with the tall and graceful cypress, the palm with its branching head, the outspreading fig, the bushy white mulberry, the handsome terebinth, the long-lived cedar, various species of oak, with other trees; to say nothing of many shrubs and plants.

In Ecclesiasticus xxiv. 13, seq. is an enumeration of many Palestinian trees, to each of which in turn Wisdom compares herself:'I was exalted like a cedar in Libanus, and as a cyprus-tree upon the mountains of Hermon. I was exalted like a palm-tree in Engaddi, and as a rose-plant in Jericho, as a fair olive tree in a pleasant field, and grew up as a plane-tree by the water. As the turpentine-tree I stretched out my branches, and my branches are the branches of honour