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and grace. As the vine brought I forth pleasant savour, and my flowers are the fruit of honour and riches.' Some, perhaps many, trees not mentioned, or at least not recognised in the Bible, originally adorned the surface of Palestine. Of these we may men. tion the walnut tree, which was seen by Olin (ii. 418) near Safed, in Galilee. Early in May, according to Kitto ('Palestine,' 250), 'large walnut-trees may be seen bending to the ground under their loads of fruit. The

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walnut-tree sometimes joins with the oak to overshadow the streams beyond Jordan.' We also cite these words from Robinson: 'We stopped for lunch a few rods short of the village (Jufna), under a large walnut-tree, like the English waluut, the first we had seen. It was growing within the precincts of an ancient church. Under the tree, a small enclosure contains an altar on which mass is still sometimes celebrated' (iii 78).

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TRIBES (L. tribus), representing (Gen. xlix. 28) the Hebrew shevet, which, according to its import, is (10) translated' sceptre' and 'rod' (Levit. xxvii. 32), are family divisions of men that grew naturally out of the patriarchal mode of life, were among the earliest fixed states in which society was found, and have always prevailed in the East, where the most ancient usages have from age to age been preserved and transmitted. agreement with other Oriental peoples-as, for example, the Edomites (Gen. xxxvi.), and the Ishmaelites, or Arabs (xxv. 12, seq. ; comp. xvii. 10)-the Hebrews, of an Aramaic nomad race, were in the fourth generation divided into twelve families, according to the names and descendants of the twelve sons of Jacob (xlix. 28). These sons were, Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Zebulun, Issachar, Dan, Gad, Asher, Naphtali, Joseph, Benjamin. Of these, Levi was not reckoned as a tribe, because the Levites had no portion in the soil of Canaan. Joseph was divided into two, Ephraim and Manasseh (xlviii. xlix. 28). Four of these sons had slaves for their mothers, namely, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, and Asher. Each tribe was divided into families, and each family into houses (Numbers i. 2, 18). At the head of each tribe was its prince (16). Next stood the heads of their fathers' houses (Exod. vi. 14. 1 Chron. v. 15). The highest officer was called chief over the chief' (Numb. iii. 32). So among the modern Bedouins we find emirs, sheikhs, and fathers.

As representatives of the tribes there ap pear, now the twelve tribal princes of Israel (i. 44), now the heads of the fathers' houses (Josh. xiv. 1). Sometimes, without special reference to the distinction of tribes, the Hebrews are represented by their elders (Exod. iii. 16).

During the wandering in the desert, the tribes were divided into four classes, each of which contained three tribes. The head of the first class was Judah, with whom were Issachar and Zebulun; the head of the second was Reuben, with whom were Simeon and Gad; the head of the third was Ephraim, with whom were Manasseh and Benjamin; the head of the fourth was Dan, with whom were Asher and Naphtali (Numb. x. 13, seq. See CAMP). In the division of Canaan, two tribes and a half settled on the east and nine and a half on the west of the Jordan (for the several localities, see the names and consult the Maps). The tribal system being thus transported from Egypt, where it was found by Moses, into Canaan (Josh. xiii. seq; comp.

Joseph. Antiq. v. 1, 22), exerted but little binding influence on the people at large during the disturbed era of the Judges, in consequence of the strong counteractions it had to withstand from the Canaanites, who not only dwelt in the land, but kept the several tribes apart one from another. The defective union occasioned weakness and brought on national thraldom. The division into tribes, however, remained in existence, and when royalty was set up, afforded effectual aid in promoting the national unity; while doing which, it grew in strength itself, and afforded a species of representative organisation, which on occasions displayed both power and vigour (1 Samuel x. 20, seq. 2 Samuel iii. 17, seq.; v. 1, seq. 1 Kings xii. 2 Chron. xxiv. 17). Before the exile, the tribes kept their separate existence; but after that event the tribal division disappears. Families henceforth formed the basis of genealogies (Ezra viii. Nehem. vii.), and their heads were the representatives of the nation (x.). though the tribes as compact civil divisions had vanished, yet individuals, from genealogies or tradition, retained a knowledge of the tribes to which they belonged (Luke ii. 36. Acts xiii. 21. Romans xi. 1); and in the hopes connected with the Messiah, the twelve tribes remained as the representative of the nation and the basis of the expected kingdom (Matt. xix. 28. Apoc. v. 5, 9; vii. 4, seq.).

But

The division into tribes, in connection with the partition among them of the land of promise, made family registers, as the ground and evidence of family and individual rights, of the greatest consequence, and accordingly they became the foundation of Hebrew history. See GENEALOGY.

In Matt. xxii. 24, the law of Moses is spoken of which requires the brother of a deceased man, dying childless, to marry his widow and raise up seed to his brother,' or beget children, which should be accounted not his own, but his brother's. Many Jewish ordinances had for their aim to keep the tribes separate from each other, and the whole nation separate from the rest of the world. Such was the purpose of the requirement-called the law of the Levirate-mentioned above. The marriage of a widow by her brother-in-law was accomplished without much ceremony, because the widow of a brother that had died without children became forthwith the wife of that relative. Nevertheless, custom required that the union should be acknowledged before two witnesses, and that the brother gave the widow a piece of money. Some are of opinion that after the exile in Babylon the law was no longer observed, because the possessions of the tribes were not distinct from each other. It is said that the German and Italian Jews do not, or very seldom, act in accordance with it.

From the Book of Ruth it appears that the law (Deut. xxv. 5, seq.) extended beyond brothers to kinsmen, the nearest of which had the right of preference, which he was to exert by redeeming the inheritance (iii. 12, 13; iv. 5, 10). This usage prevailed before it received from Moses the sanction of law (Gen. xxxviii. 8).

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To the twelve tribes which are scattered abroad,' is the catholic Epistle of James addressed (i. 1). The original literally runs thus-To the twelve tribes which are in the dispersion. This dispersion, which we thus see comprised members of the whole nation, is indicated also in the words 'the strangers,' that is, Jews sojourning in foreign lands, scattered throughout' (literally, of the dispersion) Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia.' The term 'dispersion, diaspora, became the recognised Greek word for designating the Jews who dwelt beyond the limits of Palestine (John vii. 35; literally, the dispersion of the Greeks'). And we here (comp. Acts ii. 5) find an historical implication that in the days of the apostles there were members of the Hebrew nation in every nation (then known to be) under heaven. The implication of the New Testament is confirmed by fact. Scarcely was there, then, any civilised part of the ancient world in which Jews were not found. These sojourners in the dispersion' may be arranged in four groups :-I. The Jews in Assyria, Media, Babylonia, Mesopotamia, and Persia (Joseph. Antiq. xv. 3, 1), were derived from those Israelites who in the Babylonish exile had been transplanted to Eastern lands, where the difference which had existed in Palestine between Judah and Israel gradually disappeared (see CAPTIVITY), and where many thousands continued to live, apparently in prosperous circumstances. They kept up with their mother-country a religious connection by the regular transmission of the annual temple-tax, or half-shekel per head (xviii. 9, 1). A Babylonian Jew was once high-priest in Jerusalem (xv. 2, 4, and 3, 1). Their freedom was guaranteed by Alexander the Great. They were favoured by the Seleucide, since by martial services they promoted the views of those monarchs. II. Next in antiquity and importance is the colony in Egypt whither, from the commencement of the regal period, the Israelites took refuge, and where from time to time numbers of them settled, under the generally favouring auspices of the Ptolemies. Ptolemy Philadelphus (284 A. C.) procured at great cost a Greek translation of the Pentateuch, which became the germ of the Septuagint version of the Old Testament Scriptures. Under Ptolemy Philometor (180-145 A. C.) and Cleopatra, the Egyptian Jews enjoyed prosperity, being influential at court and holding high places in the army. They were also allowed to build for themselves at Leontopolis,

out of an old heathen temple, a temple after the model of (but on a smaller scale) the national sanctuary at Jerusalem. This was accomplished under the direction of a priest named Onias, who emigrated thither from Palestine. The temple and its worship fomented jealousies among the Israelites, and were destroyed by the Romans under Vespasian (Joseph. Antiq. xii. 9, 7. J. W. vii. 10, 3). Alexander settled in his new city, Alexandria, a considerable number of Jews, giving them equal rights with the Greek inhabitants. Under the first Roman emperors the Egyptian Jews lived in happy circumstances, though their liberties were sometimes invaded by the Greek population, and Augustus saw himself obliged to protect the Jews of Cyrene by a special edict (Antiq. xvi. 6, 1). But the Jews in Egypt became more and more disliked Under Caligula, those of Alexandria were insulted and assailed, their synagogues destroyed, and their rights annihilated. The Roman commander, Flaccus Avilius, took part with their bitter enemies. The entreaties of Herod Agrippa, who acquainted the emperor with these cruel persecutions, caused only a momentary discontinuance of them. The quarrel grew worse; and even an embassy to the emperor, conducted by the well-known Philo, Lad nothing but scorn for its result.

Caligula died, and the Egyptian Jews drew breath. Under Claudius, they regained liberty (Antiq. xix. 5, 2). But when Nero had assumed the purple, the old hatred revived. Blood and massacre ensued, and at length the temple at Leontopolis fell. In the days of their prosperity, the Jews of Alexandria had several synagogues. Two of the five sections of the city were inhabited almost exclusively by Jews, who formed nearly a moiety of the inhabitants. An ecclesiastical connection with Jerusalem was sustained. The Alexandrine Jews had, with those of Cyrene (derived from Egypt), a sy nagogue of their own in the common metropolis (Acts vi. 9), and both of them paid the annual temple dues (Antiq. xvi. 6, 1). The Jews of Alexandria made the Greek language their own, and employed it in their worship as well as in ordinary life. They also cultivated the Greek philosophy, which flourished in that famous seat of learning The Alexandrine rabbis held a high position among the most learned men of their nation, and formed a species of religious philosophy based on the allegorical interpretation of their sacred books. Of this system Philo's writings present a specimen. III. The Syrian dispersion mainly consisted of Jews who, from the time of Seleucus Nicator (cir. 300 A. C.), had migrated into Syria. Under that monarch, they enjoyed equal liberties with the Macedonians in Antioch and other cities (Antiq. xii. 3, 1). Succeeding princes, except Antiochus Epiphanes, showed favour

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'On the following day, as early as the commencement of the morning sacrifice, the mul titude streamed towards the gate of Ephraim, by which the victorious army was to enter. The streets of the new city and the lowe city, as far as the castle Baris, were strewed

to the Jews (J. W. vii. 3, 5), who lived in prosperity, attempted to make proselytes, were numerous in Damascus, and had in Antioch a president or patriarch of their own (ii. 20, 2). By degrees, however, they incurred the haired of the people, which broke out under Nero, and grew more bitter and more baneful under Vespasian. Titus, however, were the Jews received into favour. From Syria, Jews migrated into Asia Minor. Antiochus Deus granted citizenship to the Jews in Ionia (Antiq. xii. 3, 2). Antiochus the Great transported from Babylonia and Mesopotamia into Phrygia and Lydia, which he had conquered, 3000 Jewish families (Antiq. xii. 3, 4). We find in Josephus (Antiq. xiv. 10; xvi. 6) a series of decrees issued by Julius Cæsar and Augustus to the chief cities of Asia Minor, namely, Ephesus, Sardis, Laodicea, Halicarnassus, &c., in which are secured to the Jewish residents the undisturbed practice of their religion, commonly also exemption from military service, with permission to send firstfruits and the temple-tax to Jerusalem. IV. From Asia Minor, Jews passed over into Europe, especially Greece (John vii. 35) and Macedonia; in all the chief cities of which, especially those on the coast, we find, in the days of the apostles, resident Jews with their synagogues, or at least proseuchai, oratories or houses of prayer (Acts xvi. seq.). Before the time of Pompey, Rome and Italy had no Jews. But from captives set free, and immigrants from Palestine, Greece, and other parts, there grew up in Rome a large Jewish population, who dwelt in a quarter of the city beyond the Tiber by themselves. They enjoyed full religious liberty, and were not without success in making proselytes. They must soon have acquired substance, since their payments to the temple at Jerusalem amounted to a considerable sum. They were expelled the city under Tiberius, and again under Claudius (Acts xviii. 2). The great importance of this wide and extensive dispersion of the Hebrew race, not only for religion, but civilisation, can here be only alluded to; but the facts connected with it combine to offer a striking illustration of the working of Divine Providence in preparing the way for Christ.

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with fragrant flowers; tapestry of various colours hung from the parapets of the roofs, and banners were displayed from the alijahs; while on the pinnacles of the temple were hung the curtains which in former years had closed the entrance of the sanctuary. A chorus of virgins passed out at the gate of Ephraim, under a splendid triumphal arch, to meet the victorious army.-Messengers were hastening to and fro, the crowd increased, and every one was endeavouring to find himself a commodious place. The mu sic of the temple was heard between. Saliu had secured one of the highest places for his masters, from which the whole scene lay before their eyes. In this way several hours had passed. The messengers, mounted on horseback, went and returned more frequently. At length from thousands of voices was heard the exclamation, 'They come! The chorus of virgins arose, with their psalteries and tabrets, and sung in bold strains the valour of the conquerors, the fall of Samaria, and the mercy of Jehovah to his people. When they reached the advanced guard of the army, way was made for them, till they reached the car on which the youthful Maccabees were seated. Standing before it, they began an ode, the burthen of which recalled the immortal song of Miriam, the sister of Moses, the first of the female singers of

TRIUMPH (L.), the pompous procession of a victorious Roman general on his return home, in which objects and persons that he had captured, and that were most fitted to add splendour to the show and to the conqueror's reputation, were openly displayed (see page 223). Hence some striking allusions are borrowed in the New Testament (Coloss. ii. 15. Ephes. iv. 8; comp. Heb. ii. 9).

Israel:

A triumph, such as it may have been in Jerusalem during the Maccabean period, is, with its accompaniments, described in Helon's 'Pilgrimage to Jerusalem' (ii. 50, seq.):

'Sing unto Jehovah, for he has triumphed gloriously; He hath filled Samaria with trenches of water!'

Then the hymn took up the praises of the princes, and the warriors, and the whole people, and the defeat of Samaria; and at the close of every strophe, all, with united voice and instruments, raised the chorus of Miriam. The victorious princes thanked the virgins, who advanced before them to the triumphal arch at the gate of Ephraim. Here stood the high-priest, with the whole of the Sanhedrim, and a great multitude of the priests and levites. Priests, warriors, and

citizens, listened to the psalm in silent veneration. The aged man who wore the insignia of the high-priest's office, looked at times with moistened eyes upon the car in which his sons were seated, as if the remembrance of his own youthful heroism revived in his mind, and as if he would have said, My Aristobulus, my Antigonus, sons of Mattathias, noble Maccabees, perform deeds in Israel like those of the brethren Judas and Jonathan! When the psalm was ended, he approached his sons; they descended from their chariot, and hastened to throw themselves into the arms of their father, who embraced and blessed them. The music began again; the triumphal procession arranged itself and advanced through the city, which resounded on every side with songs of congratulation. The maidens, with their tabrets and psalteries, headed the procession; they were followed by a multitude of victims for the sacrifice, adorned with flowers, branches, and fillets, designed to be offered as a thank-offering on the morrow. Then came the prisoners in fetters, and the huge elephants which had been taken from the Syrians. Each of these animals bore a wooden tower upon his shoulders, in which were thirty-two warriors, besides the Ethiopian who guided him. After these came the high priest, with the Sanhedrim, the priests, the levites, and the temple-music. The two sons of Hyrcanus, on their car, formed the centre of the procession, and after them came the military music of flutes, horns, aduffs, and trumpets. The army itself followed, adorned with branches of laurel and palm. First came the heavy-armed infantry, with shields and lances, in companies of hundreds and thousands. They had no upper garment, and their under garment, which was girt up short, was of various form and colour, as the fancy of each individual die tated; but all had a sword hanging at their girdle; their feet and arms were protected by metal greaves and arm-pieces, the body was covered with a coat of mail, the head with a helmet, and over the back hung the large shield. The light-armed infantry followed in the same manner, but with less cumbrous defensive weapons, and slings, bows and darts for offence. The cavalry were few in number and lightly armed. The Jewish State had never maintained any large force of this description. The military engines followed, of which the Israelites had learnt the use from the Phoenicians and Syrians; eatapults, bows which were bent by machinery, and threw beams of wood to a great distance; balista, levers with one arm, which hurled masses of stone of many hundred weight into a fortress; battering-rams, consisting of the trunks of trees, armed at the extremity with an iron head of a ram, swung in chains, which were set in motion by warriors, who stood beneath a moveable

pent-house, and thus driven with great force against the walls. The people, crowded behind, closed the whole procession. Wher they arrived at the castle of Baris, the youth. ful warriors entered their father's palace, and the army dispersed itself through the city.'

TROAS, a district in Mysia, in Asia Minor, called also Alexandria, in honour of Alexander the Great, now Eski-Stambul; also a Roman colony, on an elevation opposite the island Tenedos, on the coast of the Egean sea, six hours from the famous Troy (Acts xvi. 8, 11; xx. 5, seq. 2 Cor. ii. 12. 2 Tim. iv. 13).

TROGYLLIUM, a small town of Ionia, on the promontory Mycale (Acts xx. 15).

TROPHIMUS, of Ephesus, a convert and companion of Paul (Acts xx. 4; xxi. 29. 2 Tim. iv. 20), who is said to have been beheaded under Nero.

TRUMPETS were among the Israelites used both in divine service and in war (Numb. x. 2-10; xxix. 1. 1 Chron. xv. 28). See CESAR, MUSIC.

From Matt. vi. 2, we learn that the Pharisees carried their love of display so far, that when they performed acts of outward goodness, they sounded a trumpet in the synagogues and in the streets. The words are illustrated by what Chardin says of the dervishes or begging monks in the East, who had long ram's horns, on which, when they had received alms, they blew in honour of the giver. Perhaps beggars among the aucient Jews carried such horns, and received aid, in consideration of the honour they thus paid to their benefactors, who might give a preference to those who were most prompt and loud in these tokens of praise. Moslems, at their festival in the month Moharram, are said to invite the poor to receive alms by the sound of a trumpet. In Rev. iv. 1, reference is probably made to the custom of the Jewish church, that when the doors of the temple were opened, the priests blew their trumpets, in order to call the people to the public

service.

TRUTH (T. treue, 'faithful'), from its derivation, seems to denote a faithful report; that is, a statement in which our words correspond to our ideas (Matt. xxii. 16). This is relative truth. When our ideas correspond with the realities which they are intended to represent, we possess absolute truth (John xvi. 7. Rom. ix. 1. Mark xii. 32). In its highest condition, absolute truth is possessed only by the Infinite Intelligence. Men, however, by the diligent and loving cultivation of relative truth, may acquire all that is needful for life and godliness while they prepare for fuller disclosures of light im the future world. Heuce truth has two sources, which, agreeing so far as they go in disclosures and evidence, gradually pass one into the other, and so fill, enlighten, and

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