choice. Pleased with this fraternal piety, Zeus made them two brilliant stars (lucida sidera) in the skies. Moreover, Poseidon (Neptune) signified his approval of their brotherly love, by giving them power over the winds and the ocean, so that they were able to bear aid to seamen in distress. Owing to these circumstances, they were regarded as 'divine saviours,' and received worship as the friends and protectors of all travellers, but especially of mariners. Being the kind and protecting divinities of the ocean, their figures were naturally taken as the sign and the name of ships. And as we denominate a man-of-war The Nelson,' because Nelson is renowned for victories on the deep, and place on the prow of the ship a figure of that hero, so with a similar 'hero-worship' the Greeks and Romans put on the prows of their ships carved images of the Dioscouroi;

thus hoping to place the vessel which bore these tutelary divinities under their sheltering power. In accordance with this custom, the ship of Alexandria,' in which Paul embarked at the island of Malta, when on his way to Rome, bore the sign Castor and Pollux;' in the original, Dioscouroi (Acts xxviii. 11). The agreement which we here find with a custom prevalent in the apostle's days, is striking and forcible in proportion as it is minute There are many instances of similar agreement in the New Testament narratives. Taken separately, they may appear small, but not even then are they inconsiderable; but when viewed as a whole, they become exceedingly important, and give a well-grounded assurance that these books have a valid historical character, and speak for the most part of actual events.

CATS (T.). Though tame cats are not mentioned in the Bible, they can hardly have failed to be found in Palestine, the rather because they were numerous in Egypt, would be highly useful for the destruction of vermin in a corn-growing country, and are mentioned in the writings of the Jewish doctors. Wild cats have been found by Bochart and other authorities in the wild beasts of the desert,' Ziim, spoken of in Isa. xiii. 21; xxxiv. 14. Jer. 1. 39.

In Egypt, the cat was sacred to Pasht or Bubastis, the Diana of that country, who is here exhibited as cat-headed, from an Egyptian statue in the Payne Knight collection. The cat was also sacred to the sun. The 'cat of the sun is represented as laying hold of the reptile apoph, while inscriptions mention the cat devouring the abominable rat;' alluding probably to the service which the instincts of the animal prompt her to render

to man.

The respect with which the cat was treated in Egypt was such as few of the sacred animals experienced. Its worship was universally

prevalent throughout the country; and it became, as our cut shows, a type of a divinity. Never,' says Cicero, did any one hear tell of a cat being killed by an Egyptian.' So bigoted were the Egyptians in their veneration for this animal, that neither the influence of their own magistrates, nor the dread of the Roman name, could prevent the populace from sacrificing to their vengeance an unfortunate Roman who had accidentally killed a cat When a cat died a natural death, all the inmates of the house shaved their eyebrows in token of mourning; and, having embalmed the body, they buried it with great pomp. Those which died in the vicinity of Bubastis were sent to that city to repose within the precincts of the place particularly devoted to their worship. Others were deposited in certain consecrated spots set apart for the purpose, near the town where they had lived. In all cases, the expense of the funeral rites depended on the donations of pious individuals, or on the peculiar honours paid to the goddess of which they were the emblem. Those cats which, during life

time, had been worshipped in the temple of Pasht, as the living type of that goddess, were buried in a specially sumptuous manner. After showing how prolific Egypt was in domestic animals, Herodotus (ii. 66), after his manner, blending fable with fact, mentions a peculiarity of cats, by which he accounts for their numbers not increasing to the extent they otherwise would. He tells us, that, when a house caught fire, the only thought of the Egyptians was to preserve the lives of their cats. Ranging themselves, therefore, in bodies round the house, they endeavoured to rescue these animals from the flames, totally disregarding the destruction of the property itself; but, notwithstanding all their precautions, the cats, leaping over the heads and gliding between the legs of the bystanders, rushed into the flames, as if im pelled by divine agency to self-destruction. This story may, however, serve to illustrate the general respect in which cats were held.

Cats are still numerous and well treated in Egypt. This arises from their utility in freeing houses from rats and reptiles, by which they are infested. Such favourites are they, that, while the dog is looked upon as an unclean animal, whose touch is carefully avoided by the Moslems, the cat is often allowed to partake of the same dish with its master.

Embalmed cats are found in great number in tombs at Thebes, and other places in

Upper and Lower Egypt. The legs are bound up with the body, and the head alone left in its real shape. This, from the ears and painted face, readily indicates the animal within the bandages, which are some times of various colours, arranged in devices of different forms. Cat mummies were some.. times deposited in wooden boxes or coffins; but in all cases they were wrapped in linen bandages.

The origin of the worship of the cat is to be found in the valuable services rendered by the animal in such a country as Egypt. The fable, however, which derived the worship of animals from the assumption of their various shapes by the gods, when striving to elude the pursuit of Trypho, referred the reverence paid to this creature to the alleged fact, that Diana took the form of a cat: Fele soror Phabi. Ovid. Met. v. 323, seq.

CAUSEWAY is a perverted form of the French chausée, which is from the Latin calcare (cale in Latin, heel; calceus, a shoe), to tread upon; but, immediately, chausée is derived from a Latin word of the middle ages, calcea, that is, a via strata, a formed or paved road. The word 'causeway' used to be written causay or causey, in a nearer resemblance to its French original. The Hebrew Mesilah, of which causeway' is a translation, in 1 Chron. xxvi. 16, comes from a root which signifies to raise, and so to raise a way or road; and thus form a highway, by which word the original term is generally trans-. lated (Numb. xx. 19. Judg. xx. 31, 32, 45; xxi. 19. Isa. xl. 3). That a raised way was intended may be inferred from Isa. lxii. 10 -Prepare ye the way of the people; cast up, cast up the highway.' Large portions of Palestine would stand the less in need of artificial highways, in consequence of the hard rocky nature of the surface, which would only require to be worn away by con stant treading, in order to afford such of the conveniences of a road as would satisfy its early inhabitants. A causeway, however, thus formed, would have the great disadvantage of becoming slippery by continual use, and its direction would be determined under guidance derived from considerations of the greatest momentary ease and convenience.

In the East, where travelling is performed mostly on some beast of burden, certain tracts were at a very early period customarily pursued; and that the rather, as, from remote ages, commerce and travelling went on by means of caravans, under a certain discipline, and affording mutual protection in their passage from city to city, and from land to land. Now, wherever such a band of men and animals had once travelled, they would form a track, which, especially in countries where it is easy for a traveller to miss his way, subsequent caravans and individuals would naturally follow; and the rather, inasmuch as the original rout was

not taken arbitrarily, but because it led to the first cities in each particular district of country. And thus, at a very early period, were marked out on the surface of the globe, lines of intercommunication, running from land to land, and in some sort binding distant nations together. These, in the earliest times, lay in the direction of east to west; that being the line on which the trade and the civilisation of the earth first

ran.

The purposes of war seem, however, to have furnished the first inducement to made or artificial roads. War, we know, afforded to the Romans the motive under which they formed their roads; and, doubtless, they found them not only to facilitate conquest, but also to ensure the holding of the lands they had subdued: the remains of their roads which we have under our own eyes in this island, show us with what skill they laid out a country, and formed lines of communication. To the Romans chiefly was Palestine indebted for such roads.

There seems, as appears above, to have been roads of some kind in Palestine at an earlier period. Language is employed which supposes the existence of artificial roads In Isa. xl. 3 are these words -Prepare ye the way of the Lord; make straight in the desert a highway for our God. Every valley shall be exalted, and every mountain and hill eball be made low; and the crooked shall be made straight, and the rough places plain. There cannot be a more graphic description of the operations and results connected with the formation of a long and important road. That this is the language of prophetic inspiration, affords no objection, but rather confirms our view; for poetry, as being an appeal to widely spread feelings, grounds itself, in such a case as this, on fact; nor could such imagery as we find here, have been employed, had artificial roads been unknown in Palestine. The imagery, moreover, is not unusual: comp. Isa. xi. 16; xix. 23; xxxiii. 8; xxxv. 8; xlix. 11; lxii. 10. In 1 Sam. vi. 12, we read, 'The kine went along on the highway, lowing as they went, and turned not aside to the right hand, or to the left. In Numbers, also (xx. 17),—'We will go by the king's highway,' &c. (xxi. 22. Deut. ii. 27. Lev. xxvi. 22). Whether or not these were roads in the modern acceptation of the terin, we know, from a law regarding a free, open, and good passage to the cities of refuge (Deut. xix. 3), that the minds of the Israelites were early familiarised with the idea -Thou shalt prepare thee a way, &c.; that every slayer may flee thither. Indeed, it is highly probable that the Hebrews had become acquainted with roads during their sojourn in Egypt, where, in the Delta especially, the nature of the country would require roads to be thrown up and maintained. Josephus (Antiq. viii. 7. 4), expressly says,

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'Solomon did not neglect the care of the ways; but he laid a causeway of black stono (basalt) along the roads that led to Jerusalem, both to render them easy to travellers, and to manifest the grandeur of his riches. Winer, indeed, remarks that Josephus's roads find no support in the Bible. But although these particular roads may not be mentioned, it does not hence follow that they did not exist. Mention, however, is made, as we have seen, of ways and highways in the Scriptural authorities. To the Romans, however, Palestine was greatly indebted for its roads. On this subject, Reland ('Palestina') has supplied useful information. In the East generally, and Palestine in particular, the Romans formed roads, and set up milestones, in imitation of what they had done in Italy.

The Phoenicians, as a mercantile people, maintained a connection, not only with the West by sea, but also overland with the East. They had two great commercial highways. One came out of Arabia Felix, through Petra: the other struck from the northern extremity of the Persian Gulf, through Palestine to Tyre.

The first road which we mention in Palestine, ran from Ptolemais, on the coast of the Mediterranean, to Damascus, This road remains to the present day. Beginning at Ptolemais (Acco), it ran southward to Nazareth, and, continuing south and east, passed the plain of Esdraelon on the north; after which, turning north and east, it came to Tiberias, where, running along the Sea of Galilee, it reached Capernaum, and having passed the Jordan somewhat above the last place, it went over a spur of the Antilibanus (Jebel Heish), and, keeping straight for ward east by north, came to Damascus. This road was used both for the purposes of trade and war. In the history of the Crusades, it bears the name of Via Maris. It connected Europe with the interior of Asia coming from Asia over the Euphrates, passed along this way into the heart of Palestine. Under the Romans, it was a productive source of income. It was on this road, not far from Capernaum, that Jesus saw Matthew' sitting at the receipt of custom,' and gave him his call to the apostleship.

Troops

Another road passed along the Mediter ranean coast, southward into Egypt. Beginning at Ptolemais, it ran first to Cæsarea, thence to Diospolis, and so on through Ascalon and Gaza, down into Egypt. This was also a great line of communication, passing, as it did, through cities of much importance, running along the coast, and extending into Egypt. A glance at the map will show how important it was for trade by land and by sea, as well as for the passage of troops. A branch of this road connected the sea with the metropolis, leading from the same Cæsarea, through Diospolis to Jerusa

lem. Down this branch, Paul was sent on his way to Felix (Acts xxiii. 23, 26). The band went through Antipatris, and thence on to Cæsarea.

A third line of road connected Galilee with Judæa, running through the intervening Samaria (Luke xvii. 11. John iv. 4. Joseph. Antiq. xx. 6. 1. Life, § 32). The journey took three days. Passing along the plain of Esdraelon, the traveller entered Samaria at Ginea (Jenin), and was thence conducted to Samaria (Sebaste), thence to Shechem (Nablous), whence a good day's travel brought him to Jerusalem. This last part of the journey has been described by Maundrell (Journey,' p. 85, seq.).

Robinson came unexpectedly on traces of an old, perhaps military road, which, in ancient times (as now), led along the summit of the high mountainous tract, from the plain of Esdraelon, through Neapolis and Gophna, to the Holy City. The pavement still remains entire for a considerable distance.

In the time of the Romans, there was also a road from Jerusalem to the lake Gennesareth, through Shechem and Scythopolis. The same road sent a branch off to Scythopolis, in a westerly direction, through Esdraelon and Cæsarea; and another branch along the Jordan to Gadara, on to Damascus, along which line of country there still lies a road, southward of the Sea of Galilee, to the same celebrated city.

There were three chief roads running from Jerusalem. One passed in a north-easterly direction over the Mount of Olives, by Bethany, through openings in hills and winding ways, on to Jericho; near which the Jordan was passed when travellers took their way to the north, if they wished to go through Perea; which was the road the Galilean Jews, in coming to and returning from the festivals in the capital, were accustomed to take, thus avoiding the unfriendly territory of Samaria; or travellers turned their faces towards the south, if they intended to go towards the Red Sea. This road was followed by the Israelites, when they directed their steps towards Canaan. Through Peræa, the Syrian and As syrian armies made their hostile advances on Israel (2 Kings viii. 28; ix. 14; x. 32. seq. 1 Chron. v. 26).

This highway the Romans seem to have availed themselves of; for Robinson, on the plain of Jericho, fell in with the remains of a regular paved Roman road, which he 'traced for several rods, in a direction towards the pass leading up the western mountain to Jerusalem. It was a mere fragment, entirely similar to the Roman roads I had formerly seen in Italy' (ii. 283).

A second road led from Jerusalem, southward to Hebron, whence travellers went through the wilderness of Judea to Ailah, as the remains of a Roman road still show; or

they might take a westerly direction on to Gaza, a way which is still pursued, and is of two days' duration. The ordinary way from Jerusalem appears, in the Roman period, to have led through Eleutheropolis and Ascalon.

From Gaza, through Rhinocolura and Pelusium, was the nearest road down into Egypt from Jerusalem (Antiq. xvi. 14, 2). Along this road, many thousand prisoners, made by Vespasian on the capture of Jeru salem, were sent to Alexandria, in order to be sent to Rome. Of these two roads, from Jerusalem to Gaza, one went westward by Ramlah and Ascalon; the other, southward by Hebron. This last road, Raumer is of opinion, was that which was taken by Philip (Acts viii. 26, seq.), partly because, tradition states, the eunuch was baptized in the vicinity of Hebron; and this road from Jerusalem to Hebron runs through the 'desert' Thekoa. And here he finds the reason of the angel's command to go towards the south;' for Hebron lay south of Jerusalem; whereas, but for this direction, Philip might have gone westward by Ramlah.

There only remains for us to mention what Winer reckons as the third of the three great roads which ran from Jerusalem. This third road went to the Mediterranean at Joppa (Jaffa), a way which, from the time of the Crusades, has been taken by pilgrims procceding to the Holy City from Egypt and Europe.

CAVES (L. hollows), both natural and artificial, are very numerous in Palestine; the chalk and limestone which prevail, affording either caves or facilities for their formation by the hand of man. Carmel is celebrated for its caves, of which four hundred are said to be found in one part, called 'Monk's Cavern.' The high lands on the east of Jordan, and the hill-country of Judah, contain many caves, as well as the neighbouring district of Idumæa, which is celebrated for its caves. These caves are in some cases purely the work of nature; in others, of nature assisted by art. Of the magnitude of some of these hollows, the reader may form some idea from the cave of Engedi, near the Dead Sea, which is said to have, on one occasion, afforded shelter for thirty thousand persons.

The cave of Khureitun, or 'the labyrinth, situated at the foot of the Frank Mountain, has been described by Irby and Mangles, to whose accuracy Robinson bears testimony. Their report is as follows:-'We proceeded on foot by the side of the cliffs on the southern side of a deep and picturesque ravine, to the mouth of the cave, which is entered by a long winding narrow passage, with small natural chambers or cavities on either side. We soon came to a large chamber, with natural arches of a great height; from this chamber there were numerous pas