tric lighting, wiring on the different systems, and the theory and prac tical management of accumulators.

The course in the electrical laboratory covers the use of all the test apparatus for measuring currents, resistances, insulation and capacity, the testing of dynamos and motors, storage batteries and commercial ammeters and voltmeters. The apparatus in this department is being rapidly increased, and now contains galvanometers, resistance boxes, keys, and other apparatus from the best American and foreign makers. The classes are limited in size, thereby having the work of each student carefully overlooked by the instructor in charge of the work.

B. DEGREES.

The degree of bachelor of science (B. S.) is given to students in the Towne Scientific School at the end of the senior year. The technical degree of practical chemist (P. C.), mining engineer (E. M.), civil engineer (C. E.), or mechanical engineer (M. E.) is given to bachelors of science in the Towne School at the end of the post-senior year. Alumni of the Towne School, who hold a bachelor's degree, may receive the technical degree corresponding to their special course on completing satisfactorily at any time the studies of post-senior year.

The number of students attending instruction in the Towne Scientific School during the college year 1892-'93 is 292. Of these, the PostSeniors number 15; the Seniors, 57; the Juniors, 59; the Sophomores, 86, and the Freshmen, 85. Of the Juniors, 23 take mechanical and 18 civil engineering, 10 mining, and 8 chemistry. Of the Seniors, 18 take mechanical and 10 civil engineering, and 19 mining and chemistry. Of the Post-Seniors, 8 are mechanical engineers, 4 civil engineers, and 3 chemists.

FOUR-YEAR TECHNICAL COURSES.

In 1891, four-year technical courses were established in mechanical and electrical engineering, in civil engineering, and in chemistry. The four-year course in mechanical engineering begins in the first year with those subjects which do not require an extended preparation in mathematics, and is intended to give in the early years the necessary mathematics and physics required for more advanced work. No subjects are taken outside of those directly pertaining to the work of the mechanical engineer, and thus a somewhat larger amount of time can be devoted to the strictly technical branch of the work. In this course sufficient electrical engineering is given to make the students familiar with the principal applications of electricity to engineering problems. The course in electrical engineering begins with the first year, and for the first two years is identical with the four-year course in mechanical engineering. After the end of the second year the class devotes more time to the electrical work, although sufficient mechanical work is retained in the course to enable the students to understand much of the practical details of mechanical engineering.

The course in chemistry during the first year consists in the execution of a rather extended series of experiments upon the nonmetals and metals. The student will only omit those of greater difficulty and such as require a skillful manipulator for their performance. In addition, he will attend lectures and recitations and will be obliged to solve numerous examples based upon the various reactions that he conducts practically. The skill and familiarity with chemical methods acquired in this way will fully prepare him for the work of the second year, which will be mainly analytical, though considerable time will be allotted to the preparation of a well-selected series of inorganic salts.

In quantitative analysis he will be given every opportunity to familiarize himself with pure scientific methods in gravimetric, electrolytic, and volumetric analysis, also with gas analysis and the methods of technical analysis applied in the various branches of chemistry. The instruction in theoretical chemistry will be imparted by lectures; that in applied chemistry by lectures not only by the regularly appointed professors, but also by invited specialists, and further supplemented by frequent visits to chemical plants in this and adjacent cities. The lectures and recitations in organic chemistry will be conducted parallel with practical work upon this subject. The aim will be to have the student prepare typical substances from the whole field of organic chemistry. The most recent methods of analysis peculiar to this field will receive due attention. In the fourth year, the candidate will have the greater portion of his time to devote entirely to the principal subject and will be offered the privilege of prosecuting chemical work in the direction of pure inorganic, organic, or technical chemistry. The solution of some problem in one of these departments will constitute the thesis which he will be expected to prepare before presenting himself for his final examination.

For admission to the four-year courses in mechanical, electrical, and civil engineering the student must be prepared, in addition to the subjects required of all candidates for admission to the scientific department, to pass examinations in plane trigonometry and the use of logarithms in elementary physics and in French or German. For admission to the four-year course in chemistry the only additional subject required is French or German.

Upon the successful completion of the four-year course in one of the subjects above named the student will receive the degree of Bachelor of Science in mechanical engineering, in electrical engineering, in civil engineering or in chemistry, corresponding to the course which he has pursued. These Bachelors of Science of three years' standing, are given the technical degree in the same subject on giving evidence that they have made marked progress in their professions, and on submitting a satisfactory thesis. The degree of Master of Science is conferred upon Bachelors of Science after one year of resident graduate study.

CHAPTER XI.

THE DEPARTMENT OF DENTISTRY.

A quite general impression prevails that dentistry has had the largest share of development in this country; indeed by many it is supposed to have had its origin as a profession in America. The first statement can not probably be disputed, and the reason for this may be found in a combination of physical and mental conditions; the physical in temporary degeneration, doubtless caused by climate, food, mixing of races; in a word, all the disturbing elements consequent upon the developing of virgin land to a new civilization, and the active mentality, the result of the necessities of environment.

The origin of dentistry seems to be lost in remote antiquity, and as the Egyptians were the first to cultivate medicine, so we find the first evidence among that people of dental operations. Herodotus (500 B. C.) writes of this mother of the arts and sciences" that " 66 some (physicians) are for the eyes, others for the head, others for the teeth, and others for other internal disorders;" but at no period up to the middle of the present century was any attempt made to combine the crude elements and crystallize them into a profession. The work of the eighteenth century, confined to a few able men in England and France, served to rescue the subject from the lower grades of empiricism; but failed, in their single efforts, to raise a standard worthy the respect of scientific men. The practice was mainly confined to two classes, the mechanic and the medically trained surgeon. Both of these were, in their way, imperfect, and made up of incompatible elements. Hence the results were, necessarily, crude in every direction and progress was impossible. This condition of things, in the older civilizations, was transplanted to America with, for a time, similar results.

The first dentist on record in Philadelphia was Mr. John Woofendale, who arrived from England in 1776. He practiced in New York and Philadelphia but a short time, returning to England. From this date (1776) to near the close of the Revolutionary war there was but one dentist in this city, a Mr. Baker. In 1783 two are mentioned in the directory, Mr. John Baker and Mr. John Gardette. Joseph Le Mayeur, a French dentist, came to this country with the French army and established himself in Philadelphia in 1784. He was probably the first in the United States to perform the operation of transplanting teeth (Watson's Annals). From these beginnings, here and elsewhere,

the dental profession had its rise a century ago in this country, and from this humble and isolated origin has grown the splendid array of colleges, instructors, and educated men, a result unparalleled in any epoch and in any profession in an equal period of time.

The earlier training of dental students was necessarily confined to private instruction. The laboratory was the principal if not the only school, and whatever of surgery was required was picked up by observation or was secured by taking the medical degree. The latter course was the one adopted by a limited number after a more or less thorough training in the mechanical laboratory. This gave a somewhat better position to the few; but their efforts were too isolated to effect any marked improvement in the status of the calling, and dentistry failed to receive much respect from the profession to which it was most closely 'allied, that of medicine. The efforts of such men as Harris, Hayden, Bond, Arthur, Townsend, and Westcott led to the formation of dental associations, and from these grew the Dental College. As early as 1817 Dr. Hayden advocated the idea of a national convention of dentists, but the numbers were too few in the country at that time and lacked that intelligent appreciation of its importance to make the suggestion a success. He accomplished his desire, however, in 1840, and became the president of the first American Society of Dental Surgeons. Dr. Hayden may, therefore, justly be regarded as the father of the American educational methods in dentistry.

The decade from 1830 to 1840 was a marked epoch in the history of dentistry, and from this period may be dated its formation as a scientific body. In 1839 the attempt was made to organize the first Dental College of the world under the title of the "Baltimore College of Dental Surgery." The faculty was originally composed as follows: Horace H. Hayden, M. D., president, principles of dental science; Chapin A. Harris, M. D., dean, theory and practice of dental surgery and theory and practice of dental mechanism; Thomas E. Bond, M. D., dental pathology and therapeutics; H. Willis Baxley, M. D., anatomy and physiology.

This organization was followed in 1845 by the formation of the Ohio Dental College, located in Cincinnati. This by the Transylvania School of Dentistry in Kentucky, in 1850, and the New York College of Dental Surgery of Syracuse, N. Y., in 1852. Both of the two last named had but a short existence. In May, 1850, a charter was granted for the Philadelphia College of Dental Surgery. As this college was indirectly the foundation upon which was eventually reared the Dental Department of the University of Pennsylvania, it is of interest to know of what material the original faculty was composed. It was as follows: J. D. White, M. D., D. D. S., anatomy and physiology; Ely Parry, M. D., D. D. S., chemistry, materia medica, and special therapeutics; Robert Arthur, D. D. S., principles of dental surgery; Elisha Townsend, M. D., D. D. S., operative dentistry, and dean; T. L. Buckingham, M. D.,

mechanical dentistry; D. B. Whipple, M. D., demonstrator of surgical and mechanical dentistry.

But one of the members of this faculty is now living, Dr. J. D. White; but they were all men of marked ability in many directions, and exercised a power which contributed in no small degree to rousing attention to the superior character of American dentistry abroad and in widening its influence at home.

This school had but a four years' lease of life. Difficulties arose between the faculty and the Board of Trustees, resulting in separation and the procurement of a new charter in 1856 under the name of "The Pennsylvania College of Dental Surgery." The same Faculty continued to perform the duties. Since then, through various changes, the school has flourished and still remains one of the prominent educational institutions of Philadelphia. In 1876 the resignation of Prof. James Truman and the death of Prof. E. Wildman resulted in the appointment of E. T. Darby, D. D. S., and Charles J. Essig, M. D., D. D. S., to fill the respective chairs.

The dental colleges of this country in their earlier organization, adopted an almost fatal rule, that five years' actual practice would be regarded equivalent to one year's study at college. This was done with the view of inducing those in practice to take the degree, and thus, it was hoped, all, in time, would be enrolled into a compact and vigorous body. This proved to be an error. While it had the effect with a few, the larger number who took advantage of it were young men, some of whom resorted to false certificates to obtain the end desired. The practical result was that men were being graduated in one session, with little or no previous training. This scandal became of world-wide notoriety, sinking all dental schools into contempt, in the opinion of good men here and abroad, and promised shortly to carry the name of American dentistry to a lower depth than it occupied at its origin. This unpleasant condition naturally led the better class of dental instructors to urge the adoption of some plan for improvement. Having this in view the faculty of the Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, in 1884, requested a conference with the executive officers of the three colleges in Philadelphia. At this conference it was proposed and adopted to call a meeting of delegates from all the colleges of dentistry in the United States to convene in New York August 4, 1884. At this meeting thirteen colleges were represented, eleven by delegates and two by letter. After partially effecting an organization the conference adjourned to Saratoga, N. Y., where the American Dental Association was in session. The final outcome was the formation of "The National Association of Dental Faculties." At this meeting it was ordered that all colleges connected with this association should adopt two regular courses of instruction in separate years, before a final examination. The influence of this meeting was so marked that the principal colleges, whether represented or not, adopted this rule, and at subsequent annual meetings other schools