40. quadragies.

50. quinquagies.

60. sexagies.

70. septuagies. 80. octogies. 90. nonagies.

100. centies.

200. ducenties.

300. trecenties.

400. quadringenties. 500. quingenties, &c. 800. octingenties, &c. 1,000. millies.

2,000. bis millies.

3,000. ter millies, &c.

100,000. centies millies.

1,000,000. millies millies.

With regard to the intermediate numbers, 21, 22, 23, &c., the method above adopted is the usual one, but we may also say vicies semel and vicies et semel, though not semel vicies; for bis vicies, for example, would mean twice twenty, i. e. forty.

[§ 123.] 2. The numeral adverbs terminating either in um or o, and derived from the ordinals, or rather the ordinals themselves in the acc. or ablat. singular neuter gender, are used in answer to the question "of what number?" or "what in number?" (The Latin quotum ? or quoto? cannot be proved to have been used in this way.) e. g. primum or primo, for the first time, or first; secundum or secundo, tertium or tertio, &c., decimum, undecimum, duodecimum, tertium decimum, duodevicesimum. The ancients themselves were in doubt as to whether the termination um or o was preferable (see Gellius, x. 1.); but according to the majority of the passages in classical writers, we must prefer um; the form secundum alone is less common; and instead of it we find iterum, a second time, and secundo, secondly, for which however deinde is more frequently used. The difference between primum and primo is this, that the signification "for the first time" is common to both, but that of "firstly" belongs exclusively to primum, while primo has the additional meaning of "at first."

[§ 124.] Note. It may not be superfluous to notice here some substantives compounded with numerals: thus, from annus are formed biennium, triennium, quadriennium, sexennium, septuennium (more correct than septFrom ennium), decennium, a period of two, three, four, six, &c., years. dies we have biduum, triduum, quatriduum, a time of two, three, four days. From viri are formed duoviri, tresviri, quattuorviri, quinqueviri, se- or sexviri, septemviri, decemviri, quindecemviri, all of which compounds, if they may be so called, denote a commission consisting of a certain number of men, appointed for certain purposes. A member of such a commission is called duumvir, triumvir, from which is formed the plural triumviri, which, properly speaking, is ungrammatical, and, in fact, still wants the sanc

tion of a good authority. In inscriptions triumviri does not occur, and duomviri only once (Gruter, p. 43. No. 5.): the ordinary mode of writing it was II viri, III viri. Printed books, without the authority of MSS., are not decisive. To these words we may add the three, bimus, trimus, and quadrimus; i. e. a child of two, three, four years.

CHAP. XXXIV.

PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.

[$ 125.] 1. PRONOUNS are words which supply the place of a substantive, such as, I, thou, we, and in Latin, ego, tu, nos, &c. These words are in themselves substantives, and require nothing to complete their meaning; hence they are called pronouns substantive (pronomina substantiva), but more commonly personal pronouns, pronomina personalia.

Note. Sui is a pronoun of the third person, but not in the same way that ego and tu are pronouns of the first and second persons. For the third person (he, she, it) is not expressed in Latin in the nominative, and is implied in the third person of the verb; but if it is to be expressed, a demonstrative pronoun, commonly ille, is used. The other cases of the English pronoun of the third person are expressed by the oblique cases of is, ea, id, the nominative of which belongs to the demonstrative pronouns. Thus we say, pudet me mei, tui, ejus; laudo me, te, eum. Sui, sibi, se, is the pronoun of the third person in a reflective sense, as: laudat se, he praises himself, in which proposition the object is the same as the subject. The use of this reflective pronoun in Latin is somewhat more extensive than in our language; for sui, sibi, se, and the possessive suus, sua, suum, are used not only when the subject to which they refer occurs in the same sentence, but also when in a dependent sentence the subject of the principal or governing sentence is referred to; e. g. putat hoc sibi nocere, he thinks that this injures him (instead of himself). The beginner must observe that whereever he may add "self" to the pronoun of the third person, he has to use the reflective pronouns and the possessive suus, sua, suum; e. g. Gajus contemnebat divitias, quod se felicem reddere non possent, because they could not make him (i. e. himself, and not any other person) happy; but quod eum felicem reddere non possent would mean, because they could not make him (some other person, e. g. his friend) happy.

[§ 126.] 2. Besides these there is a number of words which are adjectives, in as much as they have three distinct forms for the three genders, and their meaning is not complete without a substantive either expressed or understood. But their inflection

differs so widely from what are commonly called adjectives, and they are so frequently used instead of a substantive, that they are not unjustly termed pronouns. They are

1) The adjunctive: ipse, ipsa, ipsum, self.

2) The demonstrative: hic, haec, hoc; iste, ista, istud; ille, illa, illud; is, ea, id, and the compound idem, eadem, idem.

3) The relative: qui, quae, quod, and the compounds quicunque and quisquis.

4) The two interrogatives: viz. the substantive interrogative, quis, quid? and the adjective interrogative, qui, quae, quod?

5) The indefinite pronouns: aliquis, aliqua, aliquid and aliquod; quidam, quaedam, quiddam and quoddam; aliquispiam, or abridged quispiam, quaepiam, quidpiam and quodpiam; quisquam, neuter quidquam; quivis, quilibet, and quisque; and all the compounds of qui or quis.

Respecting the use of these pronouns, see Chap. LXXXIV. The following observations are intended to develope only the fundamental principles.

C.

[§ 127.] Note 1. Signification of the Demonstrative Pronouns. Hic, this, is used of objects which are nearest to the speaker, whereas more distant objects are referred to by ille. The person nearest of all to the speaker is the speaker himself, whence hic homo is often the same as ego (see some passages in Heindorf on Horace, Sat. i. 9. 47.); and in this respect hic is called the pronoun of the first person.-Iste points to the person to whom I am speaking, and to the things appertaining to him. Thus iste liber, ista vestis, istud negotium, are equivalent to thy book, thy dress, thy business; and iste is, for this reason, called the pronoun of the second person. -Ille, that, is the pronoun of the third person; that is, it points to the person of whom I am speaking to some one, hence ille liber means the book of which we are speaking. (Compare on these points § 291.) — Is is used: 1) to point to something preceding, and is somewhat less emphatic than "the person mentioned before;" and, 2) as a sort of logical conjunction, when followed by qui, is qui answers to the English "he who."-Idem, the same, expresses the unity or identity of a subject with two predicates; e. g. Cicero did this thing, and he did that also, would be expressed in Latin, idem illud perfecit, hence idem may sometimes answer to our "also;" e. g. Cicero was an orator and also a philosopher, Cicero orator erat idemque (et idem) philosophus.

[§ 128.] Note 2. The compounded Relatives.-They are formed by means of the suffix cunque, which, however, is sometimes separated from its pronoun by some intervening word. It arose from the relative adverb cum (also spelled quum) and the suffix que, expressive of universality (as in quisque, § 129.; and in adverbs, § 288.). Cunque therefore originally signi

fied "whenever." By being attached to a relative pronoun or adverb, e. g. qualiscunque, quotcunque, ubicunque, utcunque, quandocunque, it renders the relative meaning of these words more general, and produces a relativum generale; and as qui signifies "who," quicunque becomes "whoever," or "every one who;" e. g. quemcunque librum legeris, ejus summam paucis verbis in commentaria referto, or utcunque se res habuit, tua tamen culpa est. It thus always occurs in connection with a verb, as the subject of a proposition. The same signification is produced by doubling the relative; e. g. quotquot, qualisqualis; and in the case of adverbs, ubiubi, utut, quoquo, &c. Thus we should have quiqui, quaequae, quodquod quicunque, quaecunque, quodcunque; but these forms are not used in the nominative, and instead of them quisquis, quidquid, were formed from the substantive interrogative quis? quid? and the doubled relative quisquis retained its substantive signification, "every one who," whereas quicunque has the meaning of an adjective. So, at least, it is with the neuter quidquid, whatever. The masculine quisquis, by way of exception, is likewise used as an adjective; e. g. in Horace: quisquis erit vitae color; and Pliny: quisquis erit ventus (nay, even the neuter quidquid in Virgil, Aen. x. 493., and Horace, Carm. ii. 13. 9., which is a complete anomaly). In the oblique cases the substantive and adjective significations coincide.

[$ 129.] Note 3. The Indefinite Pronouns. All the above-mentioned words are originally at once substantives and adjectives, and for this reason they have two distinct forms for the neuter. According to the ordinary practice, however, quisquam is a substantive only, and is often accompanied by the adjective ullus, a, um. Quispiam, too, is principally used as a substantive; but aliquispiam, in the few passages where it occurs (it is found only in Cic. Pro Sext. 29.: aliquapiam vi; and Tuscul. iii. 9. : aliquodpiam membrum), is used as an adjective; and aliquis, which has the same meaning, is found in both senses. Quisquam, with the supplementary ullus, has a negative meaning; e.g. I do not believe that any one (quisquam) has done this: quispiam and aliquis are affirmative, and quidam may be translated by "a certain." By adding the verbs vis and libet to the relative we obtain quivis and quilibet, any one; and by adding the particle que we obtain quisque and the compound unusquisque. All of these words express an indefinite generality: respecting their difference, compare Chap. LXXXIV. C.

[§ 130.] 3. The possessive pronouns are derived from the substantive pronouns, and in form they are regular adjectives of three terminations: meus, tuus, suus, noster, vester; to which we must add the relative cujus, a, um; and the pronomina gentilicia (which express origin), nostras, vestras, and cujas.

4. Lastly, we include among the pronouns also what are called pronominalia, that is, adjectives of so general a meaning, that, like real pronouns, they frequently supply the place of a noun substantive. Such pronominalia are. a) Those which answer to the question, who? and are partly single words and partly compounds: aiius, ullus, nullus, nonnullus. If we ask, which of two? it is expressed by uter? and the answer to it is alter, one of two; neuter, neither; alteruter, either the one or

the other; utervis and uterlibet, either of the two. The relative pronoun (when referring to two) is likewise uter, and in a more general sense utercunque. b) Those which denote quality, size, or number in quite a general way. They stand in relation to one another (whence they are called correlatives), and are formed according to a fixed rule. The interrogative beginning with qu coincides with the form of the relative, and according to the theory of the ancient grammarians they differ only in their accent (see § 34.); the indefinite is formed by prefixing ali; the demonstrative begins with t, and its power is sometimes increased by the suffix dem (as in idem); the relative may acquire a more general meaning by being doubled, or by the suffix cunque (§ 128.); the indefinite generality is expressed (according to § 129.) by adding the words libet or vis to the (original) interrogative form. In this manner we obtain the following pronominal correlatives, with which we have to compare the adverbial correlatives mentioned in § 288.

To these we must add the diminutives quantulus, quantuluscunque, tantulus, aliquantulum.

CHAP. XXXV.

DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS.

[§ 131.] 1. DECLENSION of the personal pronouns ego, tu, sui.