CHAP. II.

OF SYLLABLES.

[§ 14.] 1. A VOWEL or a diphthong may by itself form a syllable, as in u-va, me-o; all other syllables arise from a combination of consonants and vowels. The Latin language allows only two consonants to stand at the end of a syllable, and three only in those cases where the last is s. At the beginning of a syllable, also, there can be no more than two consonants, except when the first is a c, p, or s, followed by muta cum liquida; and at the beginning of a word there never are three consonants, except in the case of sc, sp, and st being followed by an r or 1; for example, do-ctrina, Ba-ctra, corru-ptrix, sce-ptrum, ca-stra, magi-stri, I-sthmus; spretus, strenuus, scriba, splendor.

2. It often appears doubtful as to how a word is to be divided into syllables, and where the division is to be made at the end of a line, when the space does not suffice. The following rules, however, which are founded on the structure of the language, should be observed:-1) A consonant which stands between two vowels belongs to the latter, as in ma-ter. 2) Those consonants which, in Latin or Greek, may together begin a word, go together in the division of syllables; e. g., pa-tris, and not pat-ris, as tr occur at the beginning of tres. In like manner, li-bri (brevis), i-gnis (gnomon), o-mnis, da-mnum (μváoμai), a-ctus, pun-ctum (ктîμа), ra-ptus, scri-ptus, pro-pter (Ptolemaeus), Ca-dmus (Sμwes), re-gnum (yvoús), va-fre (fretus), a-thleta (Ixíßw), i-pse, scri-psi (↓aúw), Le-sbos (σßévvvμı), e-sca, po-sco (scando), a-sper, ho-spes (spes), pa-stor, fau-stus, i-ste (stare). The cases in which three consonants begin a syllable have been mentioned above. Whenever there occurs any combination of consonants which cannot stand at the beginning of words, they are treated according to the analogy of the rest. All combinations of muta cum liquida, for instance, go together, as most of them may commence a word; and we must therefore divide ara-chne, a-gmen, fra-gmentum, Da-phne, Pha-tnae, rhy-thmus, smara-gdus, and Lu-gdunum, since gd is to be treated like ct. 3) In compound words, the division must be made so as to keep the parts distinct, as inter-eram (not inte-reram), because

the word is compounded of inter and eram. So also ab-utor, ab-rado, abs-condo, abs-temius (from temetum), sus-cipio (from the form subs), dis-quiro, et-iam, ob-latum; and red-eo, red-undo, prod-eo, and sed-itio, for the d, here inserted to prevent hiatus, must go with the preceding vowel, because, if added to the second, it would obscure the elements of the compound word. But when the component parts of a word are doubtful, or when the first word has dropped its termination to prevent hiatus, the syllables are divided as if the word were not a compound; e. g., po-tes (from pote or potis es), ani-madverto and not anim-adverto, ve-neo (from venum eo), ma-gnanimus, am-bages, and lon-gaevus.

CHAP. III.

OF THE LENGTH AND SHORTNESS OF SYLLABLES.

[§ 15.] SYLLABLES are long or short, either by the nature of the vowel they contain, or they become long by their short vowel being followed by two or more consonants, that is, by their position. We shall first speak of the natural length and shortness of vowels.

1. All Diphthongs are long, and also all those single vowels which have arisen from the contraction of two into one, such as cogo (from coago), mālo (from măvolo), tibicen (from tibiicen and tibia, but tubicen from tuba), bigae (from bijugae), būbus and bōbus (from bovibus), and so also dis for diis, gratis for gratiis, and nil for nihil.

Note. The preposition prae is commonly made short when compounded with a word which begins with a vowel, e. g. Ovid, Metam. vii. 131.: Quos ubi viderunt praeacutae cuspidis hastas. The reason for this peculiarity is explained in the rule following; but there is no other instance in the Latin language of a diphthong standing before a vowel. It occurs only in Greek proper names, in which however the diphthong remains long, as Aeolides Sisyphus, and Aeeta relictus, for the examples which are adduced as proofs of the diphthong being shortened (Ovid, Heroid. vi. 103., and Trist. iii. 12. 2.) are not decisive.

2. A Vowel is short, when it is followed by another vowel (Vocalis ante vocalem brevis est), as in deus, filius, pìus, ruo, corruo; and, as h is not considered as a consonant, also in such words as trăho, contrăho, věho, and advěho.

[§ 16.] Note. Exceptions.-1) The vowel e in eheu is always long, the o in ohe is frequently long, and the i in Diana sometimes. 2) The e in the termination of the genitive and dative of the fifth declension is long when it is preceded by a vowel, as in diei, speciei. 3) a is long in the obsolete ending of the genitive in the first declension, as in aurāi and pictāi, for aurae and pictae, in Virg. 4) a and e are long in the vocative terminations āi and ēi of the words ending in ajus and ejus; e. g., Gai, Vultēi. (See Chap. XI. note 3.) 5) All the genitives in ius, except alterius, have the i commonly long; the poets however use the i in illius, istius, ipsius, unius, totius, ullius, and utrius, sometimes as a long and sometimes as a short vowel. The instances of the i in solius being shortened cannot be relied upon; but alius, being a contraction for aliius, can never be made short. Alterius, on the other hand, is sometimes made long (see § 49.). 6) The verb fio has the i long, except when an r occurs in it. Ovid, Trist. i. 8. 7.: Omnia jam fient, fieri quae posse negabam. 7) Greek words retain their own original quantity, and we therefore say aër, eos (ýúc), Amphion, Agesilāus, and Menelaus. The e and i in the terminations ea and eus, or ia and ius, therefore, are long when they represent the Greek Ea and tog (the Romans, not having the diphthong ei in their language, represent the Greek & sometimes by e and sometimes by i, but these vowels, of course, are always long); e. g., Galatea, Medea, Ænēas, Dareus or Darius, Iphigenia, Alexandria, Antiochia, Nicomedia, Samaria, Seleucia, Thalia, Arius, Basilius, nosocomium, and the adjectives Epicurēus, Pythagoreus, spondeus, and the like: but when the Greek is ɛa or a, the e and i are short, as in idea, philosophia, theologia. The same is the case with the patronymic words in ides, since the Greek may be ions, as in Priamides and acides; or one, as in Atrides, Pelides, which are derived from Atreus and Peleus. The only exceptions to this rule are, that platea (a street) has the e short, though according to the Greek areia it ought to be long, and that chorea is sometimes used instead of chorea (xopɛía). Some of the late Roman poets use academia instead of academia, although in Greek writers it is always long, whether spelled with a or with .

Note 2. It is a part of the above rule, that a long vowel or diphthong at the end of a word, when the word following begins with a vowel, is usually made short in the thesis of a verse. (See above, Chap. I. 4. note 1.)

[§ 17.] 3. Usage (auctoritas) alone makes the vowel in the first syllable of mater, frater, pravus, mano (I flow), dico, duco, miror, nitor, scribo, dono, pono, utor, muto, sumo, cura, &c. long; and short in pater, avus, cado, maneo, gravis, rego, tego, bibo, minor, colo, moror, probo, domus, sono, soror, and others. It must be presumed that the student makes himself acquainted with the quantity of such words as these by practice, for rules can be given only with regard to derivatives. It must further be observed, that the in the following words is long: formica, lectica, lorica, vesica, urtica, hemina, resina, sagina, saliva, castigo, and formido.

a) Derivative words retain the quantity of their root, as in declension and conjugation: thus the a in amor and ămo is short, and therefore also in ămoris, ămat, ămabam, ămavi, &c.;

except when the consonants after the vowel of the root produce a difference. New words formed from roots likewise retain the quantity; as from amo-ămor, amicus, ămabilis; from lux, lūcis -luceo, lucidus; from mater māternus, mātertera; and from

finis-finio, finitio, finitimus, &c.

[§ 18.] With regard to Conjugation, however, the following rules also must be observed.

1. The perfect and supine, when they consist of two syllables, and the tenses formed from them, have the first syllable long, even when in the present tense it is short, e. g., video, vidi; fugio, fūgi; légo, lēgi, lēgisse, lēgeram, &c. (except, however, when one vowel stands before another, in which case the general rule remains in force, as in ruo, rui, dirui); video, visum; moveo, mōtum, mōtus, mōturus. Seven dissyllable perfects, however, and nine dissyllable supines, together with their compounds, make their penultima short; viz. bibi, dědi, fidi (from findo), stěti, stīti, tŭli, and scidi (from scindo), and dătum, rătum, sătum, ĭtum, lítum, citum, quitum, situm, and rútum. Sisto makes its supine stătum, whence stătus, a, um, and the compounds adstitum, destitum, restitum.

2. Perfects which are formed by reduplication, as tundo, tutŭdi; cano, cecini; pello, pepuli, have the first two syllables short: but the second sometimes becomes long by position, as in mordeo, momordi; tendo, tětendi. Pedo and caedo are the only two words which retain the long vowel in the syllable which forms the root, pepēdi, cecidi; whereas cado, in accordance with the rule, has cecidi.

3. The perfect posui and the supine positum have the o short, although in pono it is long.

With regard to Declension, we must notice the exception that the words lār, pār, sāl, and pēs, shorten their vowel throughout their declension: sălis, pedis, &c.

[§ 19.] In the formation of new words by Derivation, there are several exceptions to the above rule. The following words make the short vowel long: măcer, mācero; légere, lex, lēgis, lēgare; rēgo, rex, rēgis, rēgula; tego, tēgula; secus, sēcius; sedeo, sēdes; sĕro, sēmen, sēmentis; lino, litera (if we do not prefer littera); stips, stipis, stipendium; suspicor, suspicio; persono, persōna; võco, vox, vōcis; and homo, hūmanus. The following words have a short vowel, although it is long in the root: lăbare from lābi; nătare from nāre; păciscor from par, pācis; ambītus and ambitio from ambīre, ambitum ; dicax from dicere; fides and perfidus from fido and fidus (and we regularly find infidus); mõlestus from mōles; nõta and notare from nōtus; õdium from ōdi; sopor from sōpire; dux, ducis, and redux, reducis, from dūco; lucerna from luceo; status, stătio, stăbilis, stăbulum, must be derived from sisto, unless we suppose that they are likewise shortened from stātum (from stare).

[§ 20.] The Terminations, or final syllables, by means of which an adjective is formed from a verb or a substantive, are of a different kind. Among these alis, aris, arius, aceus, anus, ivus, and osus, have a long vowel; but idus, icus, and icus, a short one; e. g., letālis, vulgāris, montānus, aestivus, vinōsus, avīdus, bellicus, patricius. A long i, however, occurs in amicus, apricus, pudicus, anticus, and posticus, and in the substantives mendicus and umbilicus. The terminations ilis and bilis have the i short when they make derivatives from verbs, but long when from substantives; e. g., facilis, docilis, and amabilis, but civilis, hostilis, puerilis, senilis, &c. The i in the termination imus may be

long or short: it is long in adjectives derived from names of animals and places, as anserinus, asinīnus, equinus, lupinus, Caudīnus, Latinus, and a few others, such as divinus, genuinus, clandestinus, intestinus, marinus, peregrinus, and vicinus; it is short in most adjectives which express time, as crastinus, diutinus, pristinus, serotinus, hornotinus, perendínus, and in those which indicate a material or substance, as adamantinus, bombycinus, crystallinus, elephantinus, cedrinus, faginus, oleaginus. Some adjectives expressive of time, however, have the i long, viz. matutinus, vespertinus, and repentīnus.

[§ 21.] b) Compounded words retain the quantity of the vowels of their elements: thus from ăvus and nepos we make abăvus and abněpos, from prāvus deprāvo, from prõbus imprõbus, from jūs (jūris) perjūrus, from lěgo (I read) perlěgo, and from lego (I despatch) ablego, delego, collega. Even when the vowel is changed, its quantity remains the same: e. g., laedo, illido; caedo, incido; aequus, iniquus; fauces, suffoco; claudo, reclūdo; făcio, efficio; cădo, incido; rătus, irritus; rěgo, erigo; lego, eligo. We may therefore infer from compounded words the quantity of those of which they consist; e. g., from adōro, admiror, and abūtor we conclude that oro, miror, and utor have the first syllable long; and from commoror and desuper, that the first syllable in moror and super is short, which is not always accurately distinguished in pronunciation, because these syllables have the accent. (See Chap. IV.)

We shall mention here, by way of example, a few more compounds from which the quantity of the vowels in their elements may be inferred. We shall choose such as cannot be mentioned in any of the subsequent lists, and present them in the third person singular of the present tense. We have a long vowel in exhālat, conclāmat, allātrat, delibat, constipat, evitat, irrītat, deplōrat, enodat, compōtat, refūtat, obdūrat, and communit; and a short one in exărat, compărat, enătat, irrigat, alligat, perfricat, erudit, expolit, devărat, comprobat, computat, recăbat, and suppudet.

But there are some exceptions, and the following compounded words change the long vowel into a short one: dejero and pejero from jūro; causidicus, fatidicus, maledĭcus, veridicus, from dicere; agnitus and cognitus from nōtus; innŭb(us), -a, and pronŭb(us), -a, from nūbo. The case is reversed in imbecillus from baculus.

[§ 22.] In respect to Composition with Prepositions, it is to be remarked, that prepositions of one syllable which end in a vowel are long, and those which end in a consonant are short: deduco, ăboleo, pĕrimo. Tra (formed from trans), as in trado, trūduco, is long; but the o (for ob) in omitto and operior is short. Pro, in Greek words, is short, as in propheta, but prōlogus, prōpola, and prōpino form exceptions. In Latin words pro is long, e. g. prūdo, promitto: but in many it is short; profugio, profugus, pronepos, profiteor, profari, profanus, profestus, profecto, proficiscor, profundus, protervus, procella, and a few others, the derivation of which is doubtful, as proceres, propitius, properare; in some the quantity is undecided. Se and di (for dis)