and has its natural place before adjectives and adverbs, but rarely before verbs, where tantopere is used instead. Adeo, to that degree or point, increases the expression to a certain end or result; e. g. adeone hospes es in hac urbe, ut haec nescias? Hence in the connection of propositions, it forms the transition to the conclusion of an argument, or to the essential part of a thing. Cicero, when he has related a thing, and then chooses to introduce the witnesses or documents themselves, frequently says: id adeo ex ipso senatusconsulto cognoscite; id adeo sciri facillime potest ex litteris publicis · civitatum (in Verr. iv. 64. iii. 51.), and puts the adeo always after a pronoun. (Comp. Spalding on Quintil. ii. 16. 18.)

[§ 282.] Ut, as, must be mentioned here as a relative adverb, expressive of similarity. From it is formed utique by means of the suffix que, which will be considered in § 288. It signifies "however it may be," and hence "certainly." Curt. iv. 44.: nihil quidem habeo venale, sed fortunam meam utique non vendo.

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The compounds sicut, velut, tamquam, to which we must add quasi, when used without a verb and as an adverb, signify as or "like." The difference in their application seems to be, that tamquam and quasi express a merely conceived or imaginary similarity, whereas sicut denotes a real one. Hence Cicero says: tamquam serpens e latibulis intulisti te; gloria virtutem tamquam umbra sequitur; philosophia omnium artium quasi parens est, where the similarity mentioned is a mere conception or supposition; but it approaches nearer to reality in me sicut alterum parentem diligit; defendo te sicut caput meum. Velut is used by late authors in the same sense as quasi; but in Cicero it has not yet acquired this signification, but has the peculiar meaning of our "for example," as bestiae, quae gignuntur e terra, velut crocodili; non elogia monumentorum hoc significant, velut hoc ad portam ? and other passages. All these adverbs occur also as conjunctions; in Cicero, however, only tamquam (besides quasi), with and without the addition of si.

Perinde and proinde have the same meaning, and are adverbs of similarity; but perinde is much more frequently found in prose writers. The reading is often uncertain; and as proinde is well established as a conjunction in the sense of "therefore" (see § 344.), many philologers have been of opinion that proinde, wherever the sense is "like," is only a corruption of perinde. But this supposition is contradicted by the authority of the poets, who use proinde as a word of two syllables. (Comp. Ruhnken on Rutil. Lupus, p. 31.) We most frequently find the combinations perinde ac, perinde ac si, as if, as though; perinde ut, in proportion as, to connect sentences. (See § 340.) But without any such additions, Cicero, for example, de Fin. i. 21. says: vivendi artem tantam tamque operosam et perinde fructuosam (and as fruitful) relinquat Epicurus?

[§ 283.] Secus has been classed among the primitives, because its derivation is uncertain. We believe that it is derived from sequor; and we might therefore have included it, like mordicus, among those adverbs mentioned in § 269. We hold that its primary signification is "in pursuance," "after,” "beside," which still appears in the compounds intrinsecus and extrinsecus. ($289.) Hence it comes to signify "less," or otherwise," viz. "than it should be." Thus we say, mihi aliter videtur, recte secusne, nihil ad te, justly or less justly, where we might also say an minus; si res secus ceciderit,

if the thing should turn out differently, that is, less well. A comparative secius (also spelled sequius) occurs very rarely, because secus itself has the signification of a comparative; it is joined with an ablative, nihilo secius, not otherwise, nevertheless; quo secius the same as quo minus, in order that not.

[§ 234.] To unquam, ever, and usquam, somewhere, we must apply that which has already been said of quisquam, § 129.: they require a negation in the sentence; and although this negation may be connected with another word, unquam and usquam become the same as nunquam and nusquam; e. g. neque te usquam vidi, the same as te nusquam vidi. The place of a negative proposition may, however, be taken by a negative question, as num tu eum unquam vidisti? hast thou ever seen him? But uspiam is not negative, any more than the pronoun quispiam; but it is the same as alicubi, except that its meaning is strengthened, just as quispiam is the same as aliquis. In the writings of modern Latinists and grammarians we find the form nuspiam, which is said to be the same as nusquam. But nuspiam does not exist at all, and its formation is contrary to analogy.

[§ 285.] It is difficult to define the difference between tum and tunc, because the editions of our authors themselves are not everywhere correct. But in general the difference may be stated thus: tunc is “then,” “at that time," in opposition to nunc; tum is "then," as the correlative of the relative quum; e. g. quum omnes adessent, tum ille exorsus est dicere, when all were present, then he began to speak. Without a relative sentence, tum is used in the sense of our "hereupon," ," "thereupon;" but we may always supply such a sentence as when this or that had taken place." The same difference exists between etiamnunc and etiamtum, which we translate by "still" or "yet," and between nunc ipsum and tum ipsum, quummaxime and tummaxime, just or even then; for etiamnunc, nunc ipsum, and quummaxime, refer to the present; but etiamtum, tum ipsum, and tummaxime to the past; e. g. etiamnunc puer est, and etiamtum puer erat; adest quummaxime frater meus, and aderat tummaxime frater, my brother was just then present. Compare § 732.

[§ 286.] Jam, combined with a negative word, answers to our "longer;" e. g. nihil jam spero, I no longer hope for anything; Brutus Mutinae vix jam sustinebat, could scarcely maintain himself any longer. It is also used for the purpose of connecting sentences, and then answers to our "further" or 66 now.

Usque, ever and anon, does not occur very frequently in this sense; e. g. in Horace, Epist. i. 10. 24. : naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret. It is commonly accompanied by a preposition; viz. ad and in, or ab and ex, and denotes time and place; e. g. usque ad portam, usque a prima aetate. See Chap. LXV. 4.

[§ 287.] Nuper, lately, is used in a very relative sense, and its meaning depends upon the period which is spoken of; for Cicero (de Nat. Deor. ii. 50.) says of certain medical observations, that they were nuper, id est paucis ante saeculis reperta, thinking at the time of the whole long period in which men had made observations. In like manner, the length of time expressed by modo (see § 270.) and mox is indefinite. The latter word, as was observed above, originally signified soon after," but it is very often used simply in Dudum is probably formed from diu (est)

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the sense of "afterwards."

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dum, and answers to the English "previously or "before," in relation to a time which has just passed away; whence it may often be translated by shortly before;" e. g. Cic. ad Att. xi. 24.: quae dudum ad me et. quae etiam ante ad Tulliam scripsisti, ea sentio esse vera. But the length of time is set forth more strongly in jamdudum, long before, or long since. This word, with poets, contains the idea of impatience, and signifies "without delay," "forthwith," as in the line of Virgil, Aen. ii. 103.: jamdudum sumite poenas. The same strengthening of the meaning appears in jampridem, long since, a long time ago. Tandem, at length, likewise serves to express the impatience with which a question is put, and even more strongly than nam (§ 134.); e. g. Cic. Philip, i. 9.: haec utrum tandem lex est an legum omnium dissolutio?

[§ 288.] 3. The Adverbs of Place, mentioned above, No. 2., ubi, where? and unde, whence? together with the adverbs derived from the relative pronoun, viz. quo, whither? and qua, in what way? are in relation to other adverbs, demonstratives, relatives, and indefinites, which are formed in the same manner. All together form a system of adverbial correlatives, similar to that of the pronominal adjectives. (See above, § 130.) We shall begin with the interrogative form, which is the simplest. Its form (as in English) is the same as that of the relative, and differs from it only by its accent. The relative acquires a more general meaning, either by being doubled, or by the suffix cunque, which is expressed in English by "ever," as in "wherever." Without any relative meaning, the simple form acquires a more general signification by the suffix que, or by the addition of the particular words vis and libet. (We call it an adverbium loci generale.) The fact of the suffix que not occurring with quo and qua is easily accounted for by the possibility of confounding them with the adverb quoque and the ablative quaque; but still, in some passages at least, quaque is found as an adverb, and so also the compound usquequaque, in any way whatever. The demonstrative is formed from the pronoun is, and its meaning is strengthened by the suffix dem. The indefinite is derived from the pronoun aliquis, or by compositions with it. We thus obtain the following correlative adverbs:

*We say without in regard to the general analogy. There are, however, passages in which the suffix que forms a generalising relative, and in which, e. g. quandoque is used for quandocunque, as in Horat. Ars Poet. 359.: quandoque bonus dormitat Homerus, and frequently in Tacitus. See the commentators on Livy, i. 24. 3.

[§ 289.] To these we must add those which are formed by composition with alius, nullus, uter, and answer to the question where? alibi, elsewhere; nullibi, nowhere (which, however, is based only on one passage of Vitruvius, vii. 1., its place being supplied by nusquam); utrŭbi or utrobi, in which of two places? with the answer utrobique, in each of the two places. Inibi is a strengthening form of ibi, and signifies "in the place itself." To the question whence? answer aliunde, from another place; utrimque, from both sides, which formation we find again in intrinsecus, from within, and extrinsecus, from without. To the question whither? answer alio, to another place; to utro, to which of two sides? answer utroque, to both sides, and neutro, to neither. The following are formed with the same termination, and have the same meaning: quopiam and quoquam, to some place (the former in an affirmative, and the latter in a negative sentence, like quisquam); intro, into; retro, back; ultro, beyond; citro, this side, chiefly used in the combination of ultro et citro, ultro citroque (towards that and this side), but ultro also signifies "in addition to," and "voluntarily." voluntarily." Porro is formed from pro, and signifies "onwards" or "further," e. g. porro pergere. In the latter sense it is used also as a conjunction to connect sentences. Compounds of eo are: adeo, up to that degree or point, so much; eousque, so long, so far; and of quo: quousque and quoad, how long? We have further to notice the adverbs with the feminine termination of the ablative à (which is probably

to be explained by supplying viā), which have become prepositions; viz. citra, contra, extra, intra, supra, derived from the original forms, cis, con, ex, in, super; also infra, below; and ultra, beyond (from the adjectives infer and ulter, which however do not occur); circa, around; and juxta, by the side or in like manner. The derivation of the two last is doubtful, but they belong to the adverbs of place. In this way arose also: nequaquam and haudquaquam, in no way; usquequaque, in all points, in all ways, composed of the above-mentioned quaque and usque.

[§ 290.] We here add the correlatives to the question whither? quorsum or quorsus? (contracted from quoversum or quoversus). The answers to them likewise end in us and um (but sometimes the one and sometimes the other is more commonly used): horsum, hither; aliquoversum, towards some place; aliorsum, towards another place; quoquoversus, towards every side; utroqueversum, introrsum, prorsum, forward (prorsus is better known in the derivative sense of "entirely"); rursum, or more frequently retrorsum, backward (rursus remained in use in the sense of "again"); sursum, heavenward (also sursum versus, a double compound); deorsum, downwards; dextrorsum, to the right; sinistrorsum, to the left; adversus or adversum, towards or opposite, usually a preposition; seorsus or seorsum, separately.

[§ 291.] 4. The above-mentioned demonstratives, ibi, there; inde, hence, and eo, thither, are used only with reference to relative sentences, which precede; e. g. ubi te heri vidi, ibi nolim te iterum conspicere, where I saw thee yesterday, there I do not wish to see thee again; unde venerat, eo redüt, he returned thither, whence he had come. More definite demonstratives, therefore, are requisite, and they are formed in Latin from the three demonstative pronouns by means of special terminations. The place where? hic, istic, illic,

whither?

istuc,

(there).

huc, illuc, (thither). whence? hinc, istinc, illinc, (thence). Instead of istuc and illuc, the forms isto and illo also are in use. These adverbs are employed with the same difference which we pointed out above (§ 127.) as existing between the pronouns hic, iste, and ille, so that hic, huc, and hinc point to the place where I, the speaker, am; istic, istuc, and istine, to the place of the second person, to whom I speak; and illic, illuc, and illinc to