Cic. ad Att. xv. 1.: Sed ad haec omnia una consolatio est, quod ea condicione nati sumus, ut nihil, quod homini accidere possit, recusare debeamus, where, with the same justice, the accusat. with the infinit. might have been used: ea condicione nos esse natos. Cicero, ad Quint. Frat. ii. 13. says: Te hilari animo esse valde me juvat; and Pliny, Epist. i. 13.: juvat me quod vigent studia; Liv. iii. 9.: Invidiosum vobis est, desertam rem publicam invadi; Cic. in Cat. ii. 7.: Timeo ne mihi sit invidiosum, quod illum emiserim potius, quam quod ejecerim. Compare the examples in the treatise of Fickenscher, Commentat. de conjunctione quod, Norimberg. 1826. But the great difference pointed out above must be observed, and we must add that quod generally refers to past time; for which reason it is preferable to say, e. g. gratissimum mihi est, quod ad me tua manu scripsisti, and gratissimum mihi est te bene valere. Wherever a Roman thought it necessary to express the individual fact more emphatically, he added to quod a demonstrative pronoun, which has no influence whatever upon the construction; and hence (to take up again the above sentence) we might say: illud ipsum, quod rex victis pepercit, causa ei multorum malorum fuit; magnum est hoc, quod victor victis pepercit, &c. Compare Cic. de Off. ii. 20. Videndumque illud est, quod, si opulentum fortunatumque defenderis, in uno illo manet gratia; sin autem inopem, probum tamen et modestum, omnes non improbi humiles praesidium sibi paratum vident.

66

[§ 627.] Note 2. The use of quod in repeating a previous expression or proposition of a person for the purpose of answering it occurs most frequently in letters; and quod in this case may be rendered in English by “with regard to," or as regards;' e. g. Cic. ad Fam. i. 7.: Quod mihi de nostro statu gratularis, minime miramur te tuo opere laetari. Quod scribis te velle scire, qui sit rei publicae status: summa dissensio est. Quod mihi de filia et de Crassipede (to whom she was betrothed) gratularis: agnosco humanitatem tuam. Further, Cicero writes to Terentia: Quod scribis, te, si velim, ad me venturam: ego vero te istic esse volo. Quod ad me, mea Terentia, scribis, te vicum vendituram: quid, obsecro te, quid futurum est? Such sentences, therefore, are not in any grammatical connection with the verb that follows after them.

Nisi quod and praeterquam quod, except the fact that, or except that, are of a different kind (see §. 735.); e. g. Cic. ad Fam. xiii. 1.: Cum Patrone Epicureo mihi omnia communia sunt : nisi quod in philosophia vehementer ab eo dissentio; but this, too, is simply an external addition of a proposition stating a fact.

[§ 628.] 17. A purely objective proposition is expressed by quod only when it depends upon the very general transitive verbs addere (mostly in the imperative adde or adjice, adde huc quod) and facere joined with an adverb, as bene facis quod me Otherwise the infinitive is employed exclusively in propositions of this kind, for a proposition, when represented as the object of a verb, is already converted into a single thought. Fecit humaniter Licinius, quod ad me, misso senatu, vesperi venit, Cic. ad Quint. Frat. ii. 1.

mones.

Hippocrates, clarus arte medicinae, videtur honestissime fecisse, quod quosdam errores suos, ne posteri errarent, confessus est,

Quintil. iii. 6. 64. (He might also have said ut-confiteretur, according to § 619.)

[§ 629.] But it must be observed that after the verbs denoting a feeling of pain or joy, and the outward expression of those feelings, viz. gaudeo, delector, angor, doleo, graviter fero, succenseo, poenitet, miror, admiror, glorior, gratulor, gratias ago, queror, indignor, and others of a similar meaning, we may either use quod in the sense of "because," or "of" or "at the fact that," or the accusative with the infinitive, in the same way that we say either illa re gaudeo or illud gaudeo. Whether quod is to be joined with the indicative or subjunctive, must be determined by the general rules concerning these moods: the indicative expresses a fact, and the subjunctive a conception. Guadeo, quod te interpellavi, Cic. de Leg. iii. 1.

Meum factum probari abs te triumpho gaudio, Caesar in Cic. ad Att. ix. 16.

Quod spiratis, quod vocem mittitis, quod formas hominum habetis, indignantur, Liv. iv. 3.

Vetus illud Catonis admodum scitum est, qui mirari se ajebat, quod non rideret haruspex, haruspicem cum vidisset, Cic. de Divin. ii. 24.

Scipio saepe querebatur, quod omnibus in rebus homines diligentiores essent, ut, capras et oves quot quisque haberet, dicere posset, amicos quot haberet, non posset dicere, et in illis quidem parandis adhibere curam, in amicis eligendis negligentes esse, Cic. Lael. 17.

Note. We should carefully mark the distinction between real objective propositions of the accus. with the infinit. (§ 602.) and those in which the accusat, with the infinit. may be used along with the construction of quod. The use of quod to express a purely objective proposition would be contrary to the pure Latin idiom (the instances adduced from Cicero belong to § 626.; and those from Livy, iii. 52. 2., and xlv. 41., have been corrected), and is found only in the earliest Latin (see Forcellini, Lexic. s. v. quod), and in the unclassical author of the work de Bell. Hispan. 36.: legati renuntiarunt quod Pompejum in potestate haberent. In the silver age, beginning with Celsus, again, some few instances occur; e. g. Celsus, i. 3. p. 25. or p. 30. ed. Bip.: illud quoque nosse (scire) oportet, quod, &c.; Martial, xi. 65. : hoc scio quod scribit nulla puella tibi, where the pronoun forms the transition; Sueton. Tit. 8. recordatus quondam super coenam, quod nihil cuiquam toto die praestitisset. This use of quod afterwards increased, and through the Vulgate it became with Christian writers the ordinary mode of speaking. See Madvig, Opusc. Acad. ii. p. 232. foll. But after the verbs enumerated above both constructions are, on the whole, equally in use, because they may be looked at from two points of view: the dependent clause may be regarded either as

a kind of object (such as we frequently find with intransitive verbs), or as an explanatory sentence answering to the ablative of a noun. We may indeed notice this further difference that the verbs expressing a feeling (gaudeo, doleo, miror) are more commonly followed by the accusat. with the infinit., and those denoting the outward expression of feeling (laudo, reprehendo, accuso, consolor, misereor, gratias ago, gratulor, &c.) are more commonly construed with quod. But there are passages in which this distinction is reversed; e. g. gratias agere, is joined by Cicero with quod, and by Tacitus with the accusat. with the infinitive; Hist. iv. 64. Redisse vos in corpus nomenque Germaniae communibus deis et praecipuo deorum Marti grutes agimus, vobisque gratulamur quod tandem liberi inter liberos eritis. Gratulor when joined to a noun takes the preposition de or the ablative alone, as Cic. ad Fam. viii. 13.: gratulor tibi affinitute viri optimi; sometimes also the accusative, as Cic. ad Att. v. 20.: mihi gratulatus es illius diei celebritatem, qua nihil me unquam delectavit magis, or with the addition of a participle, Cic. Philip. ii. 21.: Brutus Ciceroni recuperatam victoriam est gratulatus; Liv. i. 28.: Mettus Tullo devictos hostes gratulatur; but when a proposition is dependent upon gratulor, it most commonly takes the conjunction quod (answering to the preposition de), but the accus. with the infinit. is also used.

[§ 630.] 18. Quod is used exclusively in explanatory or periphrastic propositions, which refer to a preceding demonstrative pronoun (hoc, id, illud, istud), unless this pronoun be added in the nominative or accusative, as a pleonasm to verbs governing the accusative with the infinitive. Hence this rule finds its certain application only when the demonstrative pronoun is in some other case, or dependent upon a preposition.

Mihi quidem videntur homines hac re maxime beluis praestare, quod loqui possunt, Cic. de Invent. i. 4.

Socrates apud Platonem hoc Periclem ceteris praestitisse oratoribus dicit, quod is Anaxagorae fuerit auditor, Cic. Orat. 5. Tribunos (militum) omnes patricios creavit populus, contentus eo, quod ratio plebejorum habita esset, Livy.

Quam te velim cautum esse in scribendo, ex hoc (or hinc) conjicito, quod ego ad te ne haec quidem scribo, quae palam in re publica turbantur, ne cujusquam animum meae litterae interceptae offendant, Cic. ad Quint. Frat. iii. 9.

Note. The pleonastic use of the accusat. of demonstrative pronouns with the verba sentiendi et declarandi, and with the verbs of effecting, asking, and others, which require ut for the purpose of directing attention to what follows, must be carefully distinguished from this necessary use of those pronouns. The pleonastic use of this pronoun, of which we shall speak in § 748., has no influence whatever upon the construction. We remarked above that the nominat. of the demonstrative pronoun is likewise used pleonastically, and serves, in conjunction with quod following, to express more distinctly that the proposition contains a real fact; but we are here speaking of the oblique cases, especially the ablative, both with and without a preposition.

CHAP. LXXXI.

USE OF THE PARTICIPLES.

[§ 631.] 1. THE Participle expresses the action or condition of the verb in the form of an adjective, governing the case of the verb, and at the same time marking the complete or incomplete state of the action or condition. In Latin, as in English, this form of the verb is very defective, for it has, in the active, one participle to express an action still going on, as scribens, writing; and, in the passive, one to express the completed state of suffering, as scriptus, written; consequently, there is no participle of a completed action (for which we say having written), nor of a state of suffering still going on. The Greek language has participles for all these cases. The Latin deponent is the only kind of verb which has the participles complete, its passive form having an active meaning: imitans, imitating, and imitatus, one who has imitated.

To these, however, we must add two participles, one in the active and the other in the passive, which express the action or suffering as not yet begun, that is, as something which is to take place in future, whence they are called participles of the future. The participle future active properly expresses the intention or obligation to perform an action, as scripturus, one who intends or has to write, but has also the signification of simple futurity, "one who is about to write." The participle future passive expresses in the nominative the neces sity that something should be done or suffered, as epistola scribenda, a letter which must be written, and not one that will be written. In the other cases it serves to supply the sible want of a participle present passive, expressing a state of suffering going on. But of this hereafter, § 652. foll.

very

sen

Note 1. The participle contains in itself no specification of time. When we say written, we suppose indeed the act of writing to have taken place at some period of the past time; but the state expressed in written may exist in

the present as well as in the past or future time. For we may say: a thing is now written, was written three years ago, and will be written many years hence the participle written expressing in all these cases only the completion of a passive state.

[§ 632.] Note 2. The want of the participle of 'a completed action in the active is often felt very sensibly, for neither circumlocution nor the change into the passive form (e. g. victoriā partā, after he had gained the victory) always conveys exactly what is meant. But the perfect participles of deponents are a very convenient means of supplying this want, as their number is not small, and it is always easy to find some deponent which is synonymous with an active; in the case just mentioned we may say victoriam adeptus, assecutus, or consecutus.

On the other hand, the Latin writers use many perfect participles of deponents in a passive sense, along with the proper active one; but the following only are attested by the authority of correct writers: adeptus, comitatus, commentatus, complexus, confessus, demensus and emensus, effatus, ementitus, emeritus, expertus (especially inexpertus), execratus, interpretatus, meditatus, metatus, moderatus, opinatus, pactus, partitus, perfunctus, periclitatus, populatus, depopulatus, stipulatus, testatus, and its compounds contestatus and detestatus. A pretty complete list of them is given in Joh. Conr. Schwarz, Grammat. Lat. p. 382. foll. The perfect tenses of these deponents thus sometimes acquire a passive signification, and some participles are also used in a passive sense in the construction of the ablative absolute; partitus is frequently used so by Caesar: partitis copiis, Bell. Gall. vi. 6.: partito exercitu, ibid. vi. 33., and Liv. xxviii. 19.; partita classe, Liv. xxvii. 8.; and depopulato agro in Liv. ix. 36.: adepta libertate in Sallust, Cat. 7. But such things must be looked upon as exceptions, though there may be less objection to such an expression as adepta libertate uti nescis.

[§ 633.] There are, however, some active verbs which have a participle perfect with a passive form. (See § 148.) Such participles are: juratus, pransus, coenatus (which however has also a passive meaning), potus; ausus, gavisus, solitus, fisus, confisus; further, exosus, perosus, and pertaesus, which belong to odisse and the impersonal taedet. The participles assuetus and desuetus have a reflective meaning besides the passive one, and signify one who has accustomed or disaccustomed himself.

[$ 634] Note 3. The periphrasis of habere with a participle perfect passive, which in English forms the perfect active, occurs also in Latin, but almost exclusively in those expressions which denote knowing and determining. Hence we say cognitum, perspectum, perceptum, comprehensum, exploratum, statutum, constitutum, deliberatum, persuasum mihi habeo, equivalent to cognovi, perspexi, percepi, &c.; e. g. hoc cognitum habeo comprehensumque animo; qui homines amicitiam nec usu nec ratione habent cognitam; omnes habeo cognitos sensus adolescentis. Persuasum mihi habeo, and persuasissimum habeo can only be used in the neuter gender, and with an accusative with the infinitive, in the sense of mihi persuasi or persuasum mihi est. In other cases, where this periphrasis occurs, it differs in meaning from the ordinary perfect active; inchoatum and institutum habeo opus express more than inchoavi, institui, and absolutum habeo is more than absolvi. Quint. Cic. in Cic. ad Fam. iii. in fin.: quod me hortaris ut absolvam: habeo absolutum suave epos ad Caesarem, i. e. I have it ready; in Verr. iii. 14.: ut decumas ad aquas deportatas haberent. It has a strengthening power in Cic. in Rull. ii. 6.: non enim naturā bellum nescio quod habet susceptum consulatus cum tribunatu; in Verr. v. in fin.: Verres de