§ 5. Relatives, § 5. a. The relative in Latin will come at the beginand relative ning of its clause, the antecedent as near it as possible, clauses, their place and usage. As connecting links they come first, as emphatic also with before or after, as if the relative clause were an adjective. The Latin relative (as subject or object) often stands first in a sentence to connect it with a previous sentence, where we use a demonstrative or personal pronoun with or without the copula; e.g. Tum milites vocat; quos quum monuisset, &c. Cf. 25, 17; 37, 4; 45, 5; 48, 2. B. The antecedent is often attracted into the relative antecedent clause, often repeated in it-to prevent ambiguity (as in § 3 B) or to emphasize by repetition; e.g. quae urbs te unice coluit hanc urbem deles. attracted, in apposition, in antithesis. Relatives used in they are not Cf. 5, 15; 23, 4; 36, 2. Y. Relative clauses (or their equivalents) in apposition to another idea will usually come first in Latin, last in English; except where fact follows on hypothesis, or realization on conception: metuens ne veniret-id quod factum est. Cf. 6, 5; 14, 8; 22, 9; 26, 16. So, too, in comparisons (quo fortior eo felicior, cf. 12, 12), where we invert the order: and generally. 8. Relatives (e. g. that) omitted in English must be Latin where expressed in Latin, ef. (10) 9, 12; (32) 12; (37) 49; in English. (49) 9; and prepositional or adverbial clauses (e.g. 'the scene before us,' 'the house close by') often be replaced by relative clauses. For converse cf. § 9 8. Cf. 5, 11; (10) 15; 24, 2. Where in English (as in Greek with the article) the participle is used substantivally for a class, the relative with clause must be used in Latin as a rule, except where, as in § 25, the plural present participle is used. clauses used for § 5. E. Relative clauses in Latin are essentially ad- Relative juncts, whether adjectival, adverbial, or co-ordinate, and must not oe must not stand for the main predicate. In English they main predioften do so, some conventional or subordinate idea occupying the main place (cf. § 4 B); e. g. clades nova afflixit urbem, 'a fresh blow came that crushed the city.' Cf. (13) 34; (24) 3. cate. relatives. 3. Where you have two relative clauses consecutively, Consecutive do not join them, as is often done in English, by a copula (except where they refer to different antecedents; e.g. 1, 15; 3, 18); but either make one relative serve for both clauses, or change the latter clause into a co-ordinate clause and the relative into a demonstrative or personal pronoun; e. g. quod ego probo, tu autem non [id] improbas. Cic. however, Leg. II. 2, has patria pro qua mori, et cui nos totos dedere et in qua nostra omnia ponere debemus by way of an accumulative intensive (polysyndeton). Cf. (23) 2; (36) 19; (53) 6. η. Double relatives in the same clause are common Double relatives. in Latin, rare in English; e.g. quod qui dat, &c. Unneces § 6. Do not unnecessarily change the nominative § 6. case of co-ordinate and successive clauses as is often done sary change of subject. in English. To avoid this you may use the ablative abso- cf. § 9 B. lute, subordinate clauses, active for passive, participles, &c. Cf. (3) 1-5; (22) 5, 6; (31) 1. Passives re Actives. § 7. a. The passive occurs oftener in English than $7. in Latin, except in the past participle: cf. 3, 1; 9, 1; placed by (11) 8. The Latin passives are more cumbrous, less (But of. §§ 25, 26.) needed (cf. § 4 and § 8), less suited on the whole to the objective simplicity and directness of the language. prominence It is especially perhaps in cases where we make things, Esp. to give that are virtually objects, subjects of a (passive) verb, to living and the agents subordinate, that they use the active agents. § 8. Emphasis clauses. instead, with the agents as subjects and things subordinate. The so-called impersonal verbs, tædet, &c. occur frequently, but as a rule they shrank from personifying things or ideas as subjects or agents, where not necessary. Cf. (11) 14; (17) 12, &c. § 8. Te rogo. 'It is you that I ask.' In English to in English emphasize an object we make it the subject of an auxiliary requires use clause, or of a passive, that it may precede the verb. In of passives or auxiliary Latin the object may be placed first. So, generally, position in Latin answers the effect of our underlining (with voice or pen), our auxiliaries 'do,' &c., or other tricks of emphasis; and therefore auxiliary verbs and relatives (English) will often be suppressed in translation. § 9. cf. § 5. Cf. § 5. e. 7, 28; (7) 7; (8) 6; 10, 13; (10) 12; 39, 3, 8. § 9. a. The simple copula is oftener omitted than in Connection English, e.g. redit juvenis, rem narrat, implorat opem (cf. Omission of 1, 2-9; (1) 2—9), and is often replaced by the relative; sometimes by adversative antithetical particles, autem, vero, &c. of clauses. simple copula. Co-ordinate sentences Cf. § 5; 43, 11; 45, 5. But a loose aggregation of sentences as in English is avoided, and clauses must (cf. § 47) be connected by emphasis of repetition, or particles, &c., cf. §§ 34, a ; 47. B. Co-ordinate (English) sentences must constantly replaced by be replaced by (Latin) subordinate clauses (the frequent nate, repetition of 'and' being thereby avoided); the ablative absolute, deponent and passive past participles, relative, temporal, and other clauses will be used instead. subordi keeping the same sub Cf. 2, 5; (2) 25; 4, 3, 5; (7) 44; 11, 11; 25, 11, 18. These clauses will as far as possible keep the same subject and ob- ject and object, so that our repetition of pronouns ('him,' ject. 'it,' &c.) will be avoided; e.g. Tunc convocatos quum breviter admonuisset, paullisper moratus secum eduxit. Cf. § 6; (4) 5, 28; (6) 4, 7; (7) 25, &c. cf. § 6. period, in gical, chro order. § 9. y. They will be grouped (subordinately to the And by the main idea or action) in natural logical order of time, aim, natural, locause and effect, connected by relatives, or antithetically by nological position alone, autem, quidem, vero often coming in where of.$4. we use 'and' or 'while.' Cause, object, qualification or manner (causal, final, modal clauses) generally precede the main action, consecutive clauses follow, comparative follow or precede; except where the order is changed for emphasis or connexion of ideas, or where the object of an action is identical with or suggests its consequent result; e.g. faces admovit ut aedem accenderet. Cf. § 4 e; 3,8-11; 5, 16-20; 15, 1-5; 17, 4-7. Long sentences thus grouped, with the main verb The period. reserved till the close, are called periods, and are commoner in history than in oratory or letters. Cf. Livy I. 6 and by relatives sition in distinct co 8. In parenthetical clauses, where we use a relative Parentheses clause, or a clause in apposition without a verb [e. g. one or appoof them named (or who was named) Manus; &c., Unus English: ex his, Manus ei nomen erat], a co-ordinate sentence ordinates in without or with a copula is often found in Latin. 1, 4; 7, 30; 24, 15; 25, 28; 33, 10; 34, 12; 39, 23. For other parentheses cf. 14, 5; 24, 5, 27; 43, 17; 44, 23; 48, 8; 54, 14. For converse cf. §5 8. Cf. 3, Latin. Substan -14. § 10. A proper name, as subject or object, is oftener § 10. repeated in English than in Latin. We often vary the tives, §§ 10 repetition by a periphrasis, 'the old man,' 'the general,' Repetition &c. In both cases is, ille (if anything is wanted) will be found generally sufficient in Latin. Cf. (4) 30; (25) 4, 22, 26; (45) 19. of subject. Where the proper name is so used in Latin it gene- Proper rally comes first, and is emphatic or distinctive. Cf. 1, 14; 4, 11; 15, 1; 18, 17. name re peated for emphasis only, in Latin. Descriptive Nomina So too when, in English, descriptive nominatives are tives omit- tacked on to relative clauses, the relative alone will be ted. Allusive periphrase used in Latin. 'The sailors who had jumped down' = qui desiluerant. Cf. 13, 21, 31. And the same rule holds in the case of other subjects and objects repeated in English to round the sentence, or balance it antithetically. Cf. (2) 12, 15, 17, 25, 29; (3) 8, 17, 22; (15) 9; (16) 23. When however, as in § 18, a new idea is thus thrown expressed in allusively, it may be expressed in Latin, but directly, clause. by a separate clause; e.g. 'the veteran general was not to be deceived so easily:' cf. (14) 7. by separate § 11. Substantival pleo nasms. Double phrases. English conventional peri. phrases. § 11. a. Double phrases to express single ideas are often used in English, single terms in Latin. A feeling of shame' = pudor quidam. Cf. (2) 8; (9) 21, 25; (10) 2; (16) 28; (22) 34, 35, 39. B. Effete metaphors, needless synonyms and repetitions, and conventional periphrases (English) will be replaced in Latin by the simplest terms, or omitted. As instances may be given the words object, point, feature, circumstance, instance, capacity, relation, terms, person, expression, elements, incident, purport, idea, substance, theory, step, view, department, sphere, contingency, emergency, consideration, issue. Latin stock A few stock terms or phrases are found in Latin: the various phrases. meanings of ars, res, locus, studium, genus, ratio, vis, sententia, may be compared. Cf. Näg. § 8. The frequency of them in English is due partly to the want of genders in adjectives, which necessitates the use of neuter substantives, partly to the love of variety, partly to the composite elements of the language, which provide synonyms in abundance. The want of such synonyms in Latin often makes it impossible to reproduce some of our finer shades of thought and expression; and words like res, ratio, &c., become too vague and indefinite. Cf. 2, 1, 12, 22; (2) 2, 14, 24; (4) 3, 16; (6) 4, 6; (7) 48; (11) 2, 7, 17, &c. |