and void, passed a bill for triennial Parliaments, impeached Strafford, and caused him to be executed. For a time C. submitted, but on a rebellion breaking out in Ireland, and the Parliament increasing its demands, he drew his sword and threw away the scabbard. On the 4th January 1642, he appeared with a force of armed men in the House of Commons, and demanded that five members-Pym, Hampden, Hollis, Hazelrig, and Stroud should be surrendered to him on a charge of treason. The two Houses of Parliament and the city of London took the side of the five members, who had escaped, and the King, retiring from London, raised the standard of civil war. For some time the Royalists had the advantage in the engagements that took place with the soldiers of the Parliament, but in the end they were unable to stand against the 'new model' army under Fairfax and Cromwell. Finally, the Royal army was crushed at the battle of Naseby, 15th June 1645, and C. sought refuge in the army of the Scots. They, however, delivered him up to Parliament. He now commenced a series of intrigues both with and against the Scots, and with the English Presbyterians, which enraged the Independents (who, under the leadership of Cromwell, formed the strength of the army) to such an extent, that they expelled the Presbyterians from the House of Commons, and appointed a court composed of men from the army, the Rump' or remnant of the House of Commons, and the city of London, to try the King. The trial, presided over by John Bradshaw, took place in Westminster Hall, and lasted from the 20th to the 27th January 1649. It resulted in the condemnation of C. to death, and, in spite of protests from the Scots and foreign nations, he was beheaded, 30th January. C. was personally a man of virtuous character, dignified, and adorned with a graceful culture, but politically an unscrupulous dissembler and intriguer. See Clarendon's History of the Great Rebellion; Carlyle's Life and Letters of Oliver Cromwell; Forster's Statesmen of the Commonwealth.

Charles II., King of Great Britain and Ireland, was the eldest son of Charles I., and born 29th May 1630. During the civil war he resided at the Hague with his mother. On his father's death, he assumed the title of King, and, on the people of Scotland offering him the crown in 1650, he proceeded thither, and was crowned at Scone in the beginning of 1651. But he never had much love for the Scots or for the Presbyterian form of worship. After the defeat at Dunbar he put himself at the head of the Scotch army, and marched into England, but was followed, overtaken, and defeated by Cromwell at Worcester, September 3, 1651. After numerous remarkable adventures, C. succeeded in escaping to France, and subsequently to the Netherlands. There he remained till after Cromwell's death, when, on the suggestion of General Monk, he was restored to the throne, landed at, Dover, 26th May 1660, and was received with extravagant demonstrations of loyalty, which were followed by the restoration of Episcopacy, the persecution of English Nonconformists and Scotch Presbyterians, and the execution of all who had had anything to do with the beheadal of his father. His reign proved one of the most disgraceful and humiliating in British annals. C., a shrewd, cynical, and in many respects able and resolute man, was a thorough sensualist and man of pleasure. He married the Portuguese Princess Catharine of Braganza, but he was guilty of the most shameless adulteries; and during his reign the British court was more unblushingly immoral than at any other period in history. To support his extravagance and debaucheries, he sold Mardyke and Dunkirk to the French, and entering into a secret treaty with their King, accepted a pension from him to make war against Holland, which, however, resulted in the Dutch fleet, under De Ruyter, entering the Thames, and in the conclusion of an ignominious peace, which he broke again on the receipt of fresh pecuniary gifts from France. By cleverly playing off, however, one set of politicians against another, C. succeeded, for a time, in ruling as an arbitrary monarch, and certainly kept the Scotch Presbyterians thoroughly in subjection; while the hideous imposture (1678) of a Popish Plot (q. v.) against his life kept up popular excitement in his favour. Parliament was at length | aroused, and against C.'s will passed (1769) the Habeas Corpus Act (q. v.), and a bill excluding his brother James, Duke of York, from the throne owing to his having avowed himself a Roman Catholic. The Rye-House Plot, a great and somewhat mysterious conspiracy, of which his own illegitimate son, the Duke of Monmouth, was believed to be the head, and for connection with

which many distinguished persons, including Lord William Russell and Algernon Sidney, were executed, caused a reaction in favour of C. and his brother. He died somewhat suddenly, February 6, 1685, avowing himself a Roman Catholic to a priest (Father Huddlestone) introduced to his chamber by his brother. The best that can be said of C. is that he was clever, goodnatured, and personally courageous; but it should never be forgotten that he debauched the morals of his court, ruthlessly suppressed the liberties of Presbyterianism in the N., and secretly sold himself for lucre to the government of France. For a brilliant sketch of C.'s character and policy, see J. R. Green's Short History of the English People, pp. 616–619.

Charles IV. (Le Bel), the last of the Capetians, born in 1294, third son of Philippe le Bel, succeeded his brother Philippe V. (Le Long) in 1322, excluding Jeanne, Duchess of Burgundy, in virtue of the Salic law which Philippe V. had just established. C.'s second wife was his cousin-german, Maria, daughter of the Emperor Heinrich VII., and sister of King Johann of Bohemia. Although he relaxed the persecution of the lepers and the Jews, C. allowed Pope John XXII. (then at Avignon) to wreak his fury on the mendicant orders (whose vow of poverty was declared heresy) and on the sorcerers. He also helped Count Louis of Flanders to interfere by tolls with the commercial rights of his subjects. After the battle of Muhldorf C. became a candidate against Ludwig of Bavaria for the empire, which was finally divided between Austria and Bavaria. The disputes about the feudal rights in Guienne estranged C. and Edward II., and the former assisted his sister Isabella and the Lancastrians in the Harwich expedition, which placed Edward III. on the throne. C. died 31st January 1328, leaving Philippe de Valois (who succeeded him on the throne) as tutor to his daughter by his third wife, Jeanne d'Evreux.

Charles V. (Le Sage), born at Vincennes, 21st January 1337, son of Jean II. and Bonne of Luxembourg, practically reigned as Dauphin after his father was taken prisoner at Poitiers. 'La Jacquerie' gave great strength in the States-General to the Tiers Etat led by Bishop Robert le Coq and Etienne Marcel, Provost of the Traders of Paris, but C. played off against them the nobility and clergy and the provincial estates. After the devasclosed by the peace of Brétigny, there was comparative quiet tating war of Charles the Bad of Navarre and Edward III. was till the death of Jean (1364); after which the expedition of Du Guesclin against the Captal de Buch, Pedro the Cruel, the Black Prince, and his expulsion of the English, except from Calais, Bordeaux, and Bayonne, are the great features of C.'s reign. The Grand Companies' continued to harass the land, and the House of Burgundy rose into dangerous eminence. C. married Jeanne of Bourbon, and died 16th September 1380, leaving two sons. One of his ordonnances fixed the royal majority at fourteen. C. got his surname from his habits of life. 'He passed through the courses of study then known-an apt and eager scholar. Religious he was and learned, yet not a monk on the throne. To read in Latin and French, to know something of mathematics as then studied, of astrology, alchemy, theology, to gather round him well-known learned clerks and philosophers seeking science, to collect books and lay the foundations of the great library of Paris, to listen to grave moralities or noble deeds of olden history, or "divers fair tales from Holy Writ "these France, pp. 454–455. were the occupations of the sickly king.' Kitchin's History of

Charles VI. (Bien-Aime), the eldest son of Charles V., was born 3d December 1368, and succeeded his father in 1380. The Dukes of Berri, Bourbon, Burgundy, and Anjou shared supreme power during the minority of the boy-king. All these 'Princes of the Lilies' behaved badly. The last-named Duke abused the right of taxation to provide himself with means for his Sicilian expedition against Carlo Durazzo. The riots of Maillotins at Paris and Rouen, and of Tuchins in Languedoc, and the massacre of the Jews, showed the exasperation of the lower citizen class. zen class. In 1382, under the advice of the Duke of Burgundy, C. interfered in a struggle between Louis de Male, Count of Bruges and feudal lord of Ghent, and the popular party under Philip van Arteveld, who was utterly defeated at Rosbecque and Courtrai. This success was made the occasion of great severities against the Parisians, the patriotic Desmarets being executed and the taxes increased. The following year C. expelled

from W. Flanders the English crusade in favour of Pope Urban, which was commanded by the Bishop of Norwich. The marriage of the King to Isabella of Bavaria (1385), the expeditions against England (1386) of Admiral de Vienne and Constable Clisson, and the dismissal (1388) of the King's uncles by the 'Marmouset ' party, mark the next few years. This introduced comparative quiet and economy until C.'s insanity, which occurred in 1392, and which brought his brother, Louis of Orleans, into prominence as the rival of the House of Burgundy. Louis, partly maintained by the exactions of his friend, the 'false' Pope Benedict XIII. at Avignon, stirred up the expedition of Glendower, which was crushed at Shrewsbury; and so neglected the helpless King and oppressed the great towns, that his murder, in 1407, by Raoul d'Octonville, a follower of the Burgundian Duke Jean | sans Peur (‘the Fearless'), was received with ' ecstasies of joy,' | and publicly defended before the Dauphin and the nobles of France, met at the Hôtel St Pol, in March 1408. The Burgundian victory over the Liègois at Hasbain led to the 'paix fourrée of Chartres, but the struggle between Burgundy and the Comte d'Armagnac, father-in-law of Orleans (in which the city of Paris took a leading part) was continued till the treaty of Pontoise (1414). The invasion by the English succeeding at Agincourt and elsewhere, the Armagnacs became unpopular, and in 1418 were massacred in Paris by the Burgundians. In revenge, Jean of Burgundy was murdered (1419) on the Bridge of Montereau by Tanneguy-Duchatel, one of the chiefs of the Orleanist party; and his son embracing the English cause, Paris was betrayed to Henry V., who by the treaty of Troyes (1420) obtained Catherine of France in marriage, and the right of succession to the throne. Charles, however, survived Henry by two months, dying He had reigned for forty-two years: long he had been but a name, a shadow. His voice, heard at rare intervals on some piteous occasion, was as if it came from the tomb: it usually had a plaintive gentleness, a touch of sad forgiveness in it. . . . The people called him "C. the WellBeloved," clinging to him with a touching helplessness.' Kitchin's History of France, pp. 513-514.

21st October 1422.

Charles VII. (Le Victorieux, or Le Bien-Servi), born at Paris, 22d February 1403, was the fifth son of the preceding, whom he succeeded in 1422. In the same year he married Marie of Anjou, daughter of Louis, King of Sicily. He had previously, in 1418, assumed the title of Regent, and had acted with the Constable d'Armagnac against the Burgundian faction. While the latter occupied Paris, Č. held a Parliament at Poitiers and Bourges. The treaty of Troyes (1420) had transferred the French crown to Henry V. of England. Accordingly C. had to fight with Bedford and other English commanders at Crevant (1423), Verneuil (1424), and on the fatal Day of Herrings' (1429) for his existence as a sovereign. The appearance of Joanne d'Arc at the siege of Orleans, and the dismissal of the favourite La Trémouille, changed the course of events. C. himself wakened up from the frivolous sloth in which he had been living, and detaching by the treaty of Arras (1435) the House of Burgundy from the English cause, he gained several important victories over his ancient foes, organised by his ordonnances the first standing army (cavalry and infantry) of France, and made an honourable truce in 1444. He also, by the Pragmatic of Bourges, resisted the Pope's fiscal claims on the national Church. When war broke out again, the English were speedily driven from Normandy, Guienne, and Gascony. In 1457 they had left the country. Suspicions of the Dauphin (afterwards Louis XI.) hastened C.'s end: he died 22d July 1461. He had twelve children, of whom one daughter, Catherine, was married to Charles of Burgundy; another, Madeleine, to Gaston de Foix. C. was much under the good influence of Agnes Sorel. In this reign Jacques Coeur founded French trade with the Levant, but was afterwards forced to flee from his country to escape the jealousy of the nobles. See Kitchin's History of France, b. iv. c. 6, 7; and Vallet de Viriville's Histoire de C. VII. (3 vols. Par. 1862-65).

Charles VIII. (L'Affable), born at Amboise, 30th June 1470, was the only son of Louis XI. and Charlotte of Savoy: his legitimacy has been questioned. He was declared king on his father's death in 1483. His sister, Anne of Beaujeu, became regent, and conducted a successful war against the Orleanists, among whom were the future King Louis XII. and De Comines, the battle of St Aubin (1488) deciding the final campaign in Brittany. In 1491 C., who had taken Dunois as his adviser,

married Anne of Brittany, who had been already married by proxy to Maximilian. This led to a war with Germany, with whom Henry VII. sided. C., however, wished to prosecute the claim to Naples, which Charles of Anjou had bequeathed to his father; he also dreamed of conquering the Eastern Empire. He led an army of 30,000 men into Italy, drove the Medicis from Florence, obtained the Turkish Prince Zizim from Pope Alexander VI., and occupied Naples almost without striking a blow. The formation of the League of the Pope, Venice, Milan, Spain, and the Emperor caused C. to return home, winning on his way the victories of Fornovo and Novara. Gonsalvo de Cordova immediately drove the French out of Naples. C. was arranging a new Italian campaign when he died, 7th April 1498, predeceased by his son, Charles-Orland. C. was remarkable for courage and enterprise, but very sickly in body. See the Mémoires of Comines; Ségur's Histoire de C. VIII. (2 vols. 1835); and Varillas' Histoire de C. VIII.

Charles IX., born at St Germain-en-Laye, 27th June 1550, was the second son of Henri II. and Catherine de Médicis, and succeeded his brother François II. on his death in 1560, having sive in the earlier years of his reign, the Queen-mother pretendpreviously borne the title of Duc d'Orleans. C. was quite pasing to favour the Huguenots. He was, however, brought over to the Catholic side by the interview which the French court had with the Duke of Alva (representing Philip II.) at Bayonne in 1567. The Huguenots then attacked Paris, and were defeated by Montmorency at St Denis. After the short truce of Longjumeau, Condé, who had attempted to gain possession of the King's person at Meaux, was defeated at Jarnac, and in 1570 the peace of St Germain-en-Laye was signed with Henri of Navarre, who had now become leader of the Huguenots. C. seems to have fallen under the influence of Coligny at this time: probably suspicion of the Guises and jealousy of his brother Henri contributed to this. He married Elizabeth, the daughter of Maximilian II., and betrothed his sister Marguerite to Henri of Navarre. To the assassination of Coligny, and the general massacre of 24th August 1572, C. consented under considerable moral pressure. The The peace of Rochelle showed that the massacre was a great blunder. C. died 30th May 1574, leaving no legitimate children. His mistress, Marie Touchet, afterwards married François Balzac, and became the mother of Henriette d'Entragues, the mistress of Henri IV. C. wrote a book, La Chasse Royale, printed in 1625, and wrote verses of high merit. Singular to say, the King who consented to the Massacre of Bartholomew also authorised the famous Calvinistic version of the Psalms by Marot to be printed. See Varillas' Histoire de C. IX., and Sorlin de Sainte-Foy's Histoire de la Vie, Mœurs, et Vertus du Roi C. IX.

Charles X., the fourth son of the Dauphin Louis and Marie Josèphe of Saxony, and grandson of Louis XV., was born at Versailles, 9th October 1757. In 1773 he married Maria Theresa of Savoy. He was then known as Charles Philippe, Comte d'Artois. His life was extremely vicious and stupid. C. supported Early in the struggle he emigrated with his sons, the Duc the oppressive fiscal measures which precipitated the Revolution. d'Angoulême and the Duc de Berri, and afterwards meeting his brother Louis, Comte de Provence, at the Conference of Pilnitz (1791), they issued the declaration which provoked from the National Assembly a decree placing their property under sequestration, and ordering them to return to France in three months. C. took part in the campaigns of the Dukes of Brunswick and York. He also accompanied Lord Moira's expedition of 1795, which was to assist the rising of Charette and Stofflet in the royalist provinces of the W. 'Monsieur,' as C. was then called, timidly withdrew without landing, went to Holyrood, and after the peace of Amiens (1802) to London, which he did not leave till 1814, when he entered Paris, and was enthusiastically received there and in the provinces. On the return of Napoleon, C. was sent to Lyons to organise resistance, but was obliged to retire with his brother to Ghent. On the second restoration, in spite of his vows to carry out the charter of the constitution, he became the head of the reactionary party against the moderate programme of the King and his ministers. After the assassination of his son, the Duc de Berri, C. succeeded in dissolving the Richelieu ministry, and bringing in that of Villèle and Peyronnet, which engaged in the inglorious war with Spain (1823). In 1824, in his sixty-seventh year, he succeeded Louis XVIII.,

It was surrendered to Henry VIII. June 10, 1535, and after having been possessed by several eminent personages in turn, was sold for £13,000 by the Earl of Suffolk to Sir Thomas Sutton, who founded on it a magnificent hospital, and endowed it for a master, preacher, a head schoolmaster, a second master, fortyfour boys, and eighty decayed gentlemen, known as Poor Brethren. The poor brethren must not be under fifty years of age, and must have been housekeepers; they must also be bachelors and members of the Church of England. The boys, or scholars, are admitted between the ages of ten and fourteen; and both they and the poor brethren gain admission less because of their poverty than of the influence which they can command. The poor brethren have each an apartment, food, and about £26 a year for clothing, &c., and the scholars receive free board and education. The masters, however, are allowed to receive others either as boarders or as day-scholars, and as the C. is one of the best schools in London, the number of these is always considerable. Among those who distinguished themselves in after-life, after having been educated at the C., are Barrow, Addison, Steele, John Wesley, Burney, Thirlwall, Grote, Thackeray, Eastlake, and Havelock.

Charter-Party, this is a contract for letting a ship or part of one to a merchant, called the freighter or charterer, for the conveyance of goods for one or more voyages. It may be under seal, or in writing only. A memorandum of agreement, or the heads of an agreement for the drawing up of a C.-P., are frequently all that passes between shipowner and freighter, and they are as binding as a formal instrument. By the C.-P. the owner or master usually undertakes that the ship shall be seaworthy, and otherwise in condition to carry the goods; that the ship will be ready on the day appointed; that after receiving her lading she shall sail on the first opportunity, and safely deliver her goods at the place of consignment. The charterer undertakes to pay the freight, and load and unload within the time agreed on. Each binds himself by a penalty to fulfil his undertaking. The freighter may underlet, or put in the goods of another, unless contrary to the contract. The responsibility of the owner of the ship begins when the merchandise is put on board. The freighter generally insures. See BILL OF LADING.

Char'tism was the articulate expression of the misery and sense of wrong felt by the working classes (both artisan and agricultural) in the long period after the Napoleonic wars, when, without education or political rights or trade organisation, they expected to counteract high prices and low wages by a redistribution of political power.

The same movement is seen in the 'Friends of the People' (1793), and in the 'Manchester Blanheteers' (1819). In 1830 Lancashire and Yorkshire operatives were receiving 4d. a day for twelve hours' work, and in some parishes the whole available property was insufficient for the relief of the poor, although the weekly allowance for a labouring man (including earnings) was sometimes only 3s. Id. per week, when the quartern loaf was Is. Rick-burning and machine-breaking were frequent in that year. The influence of a bad poor-law and of the vexatious corn-laws was in 1835 intensified by a bad harvest; and the excitement which the Reform Act of 1832 had partially allayed broke out in the Dorchester labourers' meeting in Copenhagen Fields (1834), the Lancashire torchlight meetings of 1838, and the Birmingham National Convention (elected by Chartists) of 1839. The 'Charter,' drawn up in 1838 by six radical M. P.'s. and six members of the 'Working Men's Association,' demanded universal suffrage, ballot, annual Parliaments, payment of members, abolition of the property qualification of members, and equal electoral districts. A monster petition was presented to the Commons on 14th June 1839, but the motion to refer it to a committee was negatived by a majority of 189. This was followed by riots in Birmingham, Sheffield, Newcastle, &c., by forced contributions and the attempted suppression of religious services; but fortunately the threat of a 'sacred month,' or cessation from labour during August, was not carried out. The best Chartists, such as Hetherington, Vincent, Lovett, and even Fergus O'Connor, were 'moral. force' men, and supported their principles in the Dispatch (London), True Scotsman (Edinburgh), Journal (Birmingham), Chartist Circular, the Northern Star, and other papers. Prominent among 'physical force' Chartists was a Methodist minister named Stephens, who countenanced torchlight meetings (after they were by proclamation declared illegal), and was tried and sentenced to eighteen months' im

prisonment at Chester in 1839. The popularity of Vincent, and the report that he had been cruelly treated in prison at Newport (in Wales), occasioned the armed attack on that town under the leadership of Frost (a linendraper and magistrate), Williams (a publican), and Jones (a watchmaker). These men were tried for high treason, sentenced to death, and transported for life. In 1840-42, under O'Connor and O'Brien, C. was successfully revived, joint cause being made with the Irish Repealers. Mr Duncombe presented in Parliament the petition of the 'National Chartist Association' (which possessed 400 affiliated societies and 40,000 members); and in the N. of England there was a systematic 'turn-out' from the factories, although little violence was done to person or property. In spite of numerous prosecutions (on one of which Thomas Cooper was sent to prison for two years), the 'complete-suffrage union' of Joseph Sturge and the abortive land scheme of O'Connor (who was now supported by Ernest Jones) continued to fan the excitement. O'Connor, who had weakened his position by opposing the Anti-Corn-Law League, was nevertheless returned to Parliament in 1846, on the downfall of Sir Robert Peel's administration, but nothing of importance occurred till after the French Revolution of 1848, when a monster meeting took place on Kensington Common. The petition presented by this meeting (against the proposed procession of which to Westminster great military preparations had been made) was found to be in great measure a dishonest fabrication. This fact, the prosperity of trade, and the increase of emigration, all tended to extinguish C. O'Connor became a lunatic. The resolutions in favour of household suffrage and ballot, moved by Mr Hume in 1848, indicated that portions of Chartist principles were destined to survive. One of the 'points' has already been conceded-the ballot; others are in a fair way of being realised-e.g., 'universal suffrage;' but the experience of America does not commend the principle of pay

ment of members.'

Char'tres, the capital of the department Eure-et-Loire, France, lies in a hilly amphitheatre on the Eure, 47 miles S. W. of Paris by railway. It is in great part composed of picturesque old houses, and has turesque old houses, and has many fine promenades. Its large cathedral of Notre Dame, rebuilt during the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries, is one of the finest in France, and is almost unsurpassed elegant spires, the principal one being 400 feet high; and the for wealth of ornamental sculpture. The façade supports two windows are traced with 5000 figures, exhibiting fine artistic design and the rarest delicacy of colour. There are several other handsome churches, as those of St Pierre and St André, also an imposing episcopal palace, founded by Madame de Maintenon, a massive town-hall, a theatre, &c. C. has large manufactures grain, wine, and cattle. Pop. (1872) 16,977. C. was the capital of steel, woollens, leather, hoisery, &c., and an active trade in In the middle ages it gave name to a country which fell to the of the Gallic Carnutes, and became the Autricum of the Romans. crown of France in 1286, was raised to a duchy by François I., and became an appanage of the Orleans family, whence the eldest son of the Duc d'Orleans generally bore the title of Duc de C. Ferdinand'd'Orleans, younger son of the late Duc d'Orleans, Chartres, Duc de, Robert-Philippe-Louis-Eugènewas born in Paris, November 9, 1840, and at the Revolution of 1848 passed into exile with the rest of the family. educated at Eisenach, resided for some time at Richmond, and served along with his brother in the Federal army during the campaign of the Potomac (1862) in the American civil war. In 1863 he married his cousin, the eldest daughter of the Prince de Joinville, and in 1870 returned incognito to France, entering the army of General Chanzy under the name of Robert le Fort. After the German war, the National Assembly having revoked the law of banishment against the Orleans family, he was named commander of a squadron by M. Thiers, and served in Algeria in 1872.

He was

Chartreuse', La Grande, a famous monastery in the department of Isère, France, 13 miles N. of Grenoble, picturesquely situated in the valley of the Guiers (nearly 4000 feet above the sea), enclosed by lofty mountains, and almost inaccessible. It was founded in 1084 by St Bruno, broken up at the Revolution of 1789, and reoccupied since 1816. The well-known liqueur of the same name is manufactured by the monks, and is so much in repute, that cautions are regularly advertised in the English and other newspapers against spurious imitations.