Caravaggio, a town of N. Italy, province of Bergamo, 24 miles E. of Milan, with a pop. of about 6000. It is the birthplace of the Italian painters Polidoro Caldara and Michael Angelo Merighi, both of whom have taken a surname from the town.

Caravaggio, Michael Angelo Amerighi, or Merighi, styled Da Caravaggio, from the town in Lombardy where he was born in 1569. The son of a builder, he early consorted with decorators, developed a taste for art, and visited and studied at Milan, Venice, and Rome. His temper was vain, jealous, even ferocious, and having committed manslaughter, he fled from Rome to Malta. Here he adorned the Church of St John with an altar-piece, and was knighted by the Grand-Master; but quarrelling with a noble, was imprisoned. He escaped to Sicily, where he was followed, attacked, and wounded by the enemies whom his imperious temper had provoked. Making his way to Rome, he was attacked by fever, and died at Porto Ercole, 1609. C. was great as a colourist. Annibale Caracci says of him that, in preparing his colours, he ground flesh' (not pigments), and he was a master of light and shade to whom Rubens confessed himself inferior. He studied life, but it was low life, and his 'Burial of Christ' is said by Kugler to suggest the funeral of a gipsy chieftain.' Other famous works of C.'s are The Death of the Virgin,' 'The Distribution of the Rosary,' and 'The Gipsy.'

Caravan (Pers. karvan, 'trader'), a travelling body of merchants or pilgrims, who join company for mutual help and protection in the great deserts of Africa and Asia. In a C. there are sometimes 1000 camels following each other in single file. The greatest caravans are those to Mecca, the pilgrims in which have always business as well as devotion in view. The trade between the maritime states of Northern Africa and the Sudan, over the Sahara, is still entirely carried on in this way, and there is also an extensive caravan traffic in the interior of Asia,

Caravan'serai (Pers. karvan-sarai, an unfurnished building used in the East

house for traders') is for the reception and lodgment of caravans. Those in cities and towns have more conveniences than those on the highway, and in them a small sum a day for accommodation is generally charged. They are sometimes used as shops, stores, and even as exchanges. Neither in town nor on the highway does the traveller find in a C. anything of use for himself or his cattle, except, perhaps, a well; he has to bring the necessaries of life with him. Caravans belong either to Government or to some private individual, or they are the property of the mosque.

Caravanserai.

Car'away, the fruits of Carum carui, one of the Umbellifera, a native of middle and southern Europe and some parts of Asia, and now naturalised in many parts of Britain. Pliny says the name is derived from Caria. It is cultivated in Holland and

Germany, and in the counties of Kent and Essex in England, for the sake of the fruits, which are medicinally carminative and tonic, and for sale to confectioners and perfumers, who use them in liqueurs, cakes, bread, scented-soap, sweetmeats, &c. Its aromatic properties depend on the volatile oil, called the Oil of C. In Russia and Germany the seeds are bruised into spirit sweetened with sugar, which is used as a liqueur (Kümmelbranntwein).

Carbazot'ic, or Pic'ric Acid, is a yellow crystalline substance, prepared commercially by the action of nitric acid on phenol or Carbolic Acid (q. v.), and may be regarded as phenol

C. A. is employed by the dyer to stain silk yellow; it is sometimes fraudulently added to beer instead of hops, its solution having an intensely bitter taste. See PICRIC ACID.

Carbine, or Carabine (introduced in the 16th c. into French, and thence into English, from the Ital. carabina), a firearm with a rifled barrel, shorter than the musket or rifle. The cavalry (excepting the Lancers) and the artillery of the British army, as well as the representative corps in the auxiliary forces, are armed with breech-loading carbines, and similar weapons are carried by the Irish constabulary.

Carbineers', or Carabineers, light horsemen armed with carbines, and employed as skirmishers. Sir Joseph Meyrick states that the light cavalry, whose principal weapon was a short wheel-lock arquebus, in the service of Henri II. of France were called carabins; and another writer remarks that this body was disbanded in 1665, and their place supplied by infantry called carabineers. The 6th Dragoon Guards of the British army were early armed with the carbine, and hence they retain the name 'carabineers' as a distinctive title. Carbohy'drogens, a term sometimes employed to denote the various compounds of carbon and hydrogen. They are more generally called the Hydrocarbons (q. v.).

Carbolic Acid, or Phenol, is a substance which of late years has become of great commercial importance. It is produced by the destructive distillation of many organic substances, especially of coal, and is always obtained in commerce from coal-tar. It is said to be present in the body of the beaver (Castor Fiber), and to give to that animal its peculiar odour. It is also present in the urine of the cow.

C. A. was first isolated by Runge, and first prepared for commercial purposes by Sell, in Germany. To Grace Calvert, however, belongs the merit of preparing it pure and in immense quantities. To extract C. A. from coal-tar (which contains from 3 to 14 per cent.), the tar is submitted to distillation, and the portion boiling from 150 to 200 collected separately. This is agitated with a strong and hot solution of caustic soda, some solid caustic soda added, and the whole allowed to remain at rest, when a copious separation of crystals of carbolate or phenate of soda ensues. These crystals are next separated from the mother liquor, and dissolved in a small quantity of water. After some time the solution separates into two layers, of which the lower is a solution of phenate of soda, whilst the upper consists of hydrocarbons, &c., mechanically entangled in the crystals. The solution of phenate of soda is drawn off and mixed with sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, when sulphate or chloride of sodium is formed, and remains dissolved in the water, whereas the C. A., being only sparingly soluble in that liquid, separates in globules, which gradually rise to the surface and collect in an oily layer. The crude C. A. thus obtained is decanted, dried with chloride of calcium, and rectified, after which it is cooled to 10° C., when pure C. A. separates in crystals. This acid is a colourless crystalline substance, which fuses when heated to between 34° and 35° C., and boils at about 187° C. It possesses a peculiar, penetrating, and characteristic odour. causing the sensation of pain, hence it is employed in dentistry It blanches and corrodes the skin and other tissues, without weight of cold water, and in all proportions in alcohol, ether, to destroy an exposed nerve. It is soluble in twenty times its radical phenyle (CH), and has the composition represented by and glacial acetic acid. C. A. is a hydrate of the hydrocarbon the formula C ̧Н¿(OH). It should therefore be classed as an Alcohol (q. v.), but it differs from an alcohol in many important Thus it respects, and rather displays the properties of an acid. acts upon bases in such a manner that water separates and a salt results. acid. On account of its special properties, C. A., with other It does not, however, redden litmus like a true bodies analogous to it, form a separate group of chemical compounds, which receive the name of phenols. It is now employed in large quantities as a disinfectant and antiseptic, and as a source of various colouring matters.

Carbon is one of the most plentiful and important of the sixty-four elementary bodies known to chemists. It may be considered as the principal constituent of animal and vegetable tissues, and it also enters largely into the composition of certain minerals, of which chalk may be instanced as a familiar example. In the free or uncombined condition C. exists in three distinct modifications. Two of these, viz., Graphite and Diamond, are found in nature, but the third, Amorphous C. or Charcoal, has only been obtained by artificial means.. C. is thus an allotropic element. See ALLOTROPY.

The Diamond is a gem highly prized on account of its great brilliancy and hardness. It is found in alluvial deposits produced by the disintegration of the older rock formations. That the diamond is pure C. was first suggested by the discovery made by Lavoisier that the product of its combustion in air is carbonic acid. Later Sir H. Davy found that the volume of carbonic acid produced by burning a given weight of diamond was the same as that produced by the combustion of the same weight of charcoal. There is therefore no doubt as to the composition of the diamond, but its history remains in obscurity, for hitherto all attempts to prepare it by artificial means have failed. It is found, however, that some diamonds when burned leave an ashy skeleton resembling that of calcined vegetable matter; hence it has been suggested that the gem is produced by the gradual separation of C. from vegetable matter. The diamond is characterised by its extreme hardness and optical refrangibility, in both of which respects it is superior to any other substance. It is found crystallised in octohedra with rounded edges, and these natural edges are alone capable of cutting glass. It is denser than the other two varieties of C., its specific gravity being 3 ̊5. See DIAMOND.

Graphite, Plumbago, or Black Lead, occurs in nature in rounded masses or in hexagonal balls. It is soft, opaque, of greyish black colour, and possesses metallic lustre.. It leaves a black streak when rubbed on paper (black-lead pencils). It conducts electricity, and has the specific gravity of only 18-25. Castiron possesses the property of dissolving charcoal at a high temperature in considerable quantity, and of depositing it again on cooling in crystalline scales of graphite, which are technically called kish. When grey cast-iron is dissolved in an acid a deposit of graphite is left. Graphite, therefore, unlike the diamond, has been obtained by artificial means. See GRAPHITE.

Amorphous C., or Charcoal, is obtained by heating animal or vegetable materials in closed vessels. At a high temperature decomposition takes place; water, hydrocarbons, and other volatile products pass off in the state of vapour, and amorphous C. remains. There are several varieties of charcoal, the most important of which are the following:

Wood Charcoal, obtained either by distilling wood in iron retorts, or by allowing it to undergo a limited combustion. Coke. The residue left when coal is distilled for the production of coal-gas.

Gas C.-A very compact variety of amorphous C. found ad hering to the retorts in which coal is heated in the manufacture of coal-gas, and which owes its formation to the decomposition of the more volatile hydrocarbons by the high temperature of the walls of the retort. It is very hard and heavy (sp. gr. 2:35), and is used for making the C. plates of Bunsen's batteries.

Lamp Black.-The soot obtained by the incomplete combustion of resin, turpentine, &c.

Animal Charcoal, or Bone Black.-Obtained by heating bone in covered vessels or iron retorts. It is of especial value as a decolorising agent. See SUGAR REFINING.

The compounds of C. are exceedingly numerous, and have characters of such special kinds, that their study alone forms a large and distinct branch of chemical science, which is called Organic Chemistry. The more important compounds and groups of compounds which C. forms with other elements will be found described under their respective headings. The atomic weight of C. is 12 and its symbol C.

Carbon, in medicine. Two kinds of C., or charcoal, are used in medicine-wood charcoal and animal charcoal. The former, obtained from wood charred by exposure to a red heat without access of air, and reduced to a fine powder, consists of 98 per cent. of C. and 2 of ash. It is given in doses of from 20 to 60 grains, and is a valuable remedy for flatulency of all kinds, and for correcting foul odours from the fæces. It is useful in most forms of Dyspepsia (q. v.), and is in general a good dis

infectant, and a destroyer of bad smells. Externally it is much It is also an exused as a poultice to foul and sloughing ulcers. cellent dentifrice.

Animal charcoal is principally used in pharmacy for decolourising purposes in preparing vegetable alkaloids. It has no taste, is very cheap, and, either in the form of powder or biscuit, should be more used in dyspepsia. In large doses it is effective in poisoning with strychnine and other similar poisons.

Carbona'ri ('charcoal-burners ') claim descent from an association of German charcoal-burners in the 12th c. They are probably connected with Le Bon Cousinage of the Fendeurs (Hewers) of the Jura. Their legends name as patrons a St Theobald of Suabia and Francis I., from whose reign their almanacks date. The C. first emerge into political importance as a secret society in, S. Italy and Sicily at the beginning of the 19th c. A charter, which probably belongs to the reign of Murat, proposes the establishment of an Ausonian Republic in Italy, the Christian religion being retained, but the Papal It is said that the power and feudalism being abolished. Bourbons having promised a constitution, the C. rose against Murat, their failure causing a separation from the main body of the Calderari (Braziers). Ferdinand, on his accession, resolved to suppress those who had fought for him, and in 1819 his Minister of Police, Prince de Canova, employed the Calderari for this purpose. The Cadiz insurrection gave fresh life to the C. under the Abbé Menichini, and with the help of 'Le Giardiniere' (the Lodges of Garden-women) a second unsuccessful attempt was made to obtain a constitution. In the Papal States also the C. rose at Macerata and Faënza, but they were opposed by the orthodox society of the Sanfedisti, and their leaders betrayed. The action of the Lombardy and Venetian lodges against the hated rule of Austria was paralysed by the capture of Silvio Pellico, Torelli, &c. Carbonarism was introduced into France about 1820 by Joubert and Dugier. It is said that Lafayette was elected president.. At Belfort the society was concerned in an insurrection, (1821). Paris was their headquarters until after the revolution of 1830, when the society of "Young Italy,' for the unification of Italy, was separately organised, and the advanced Charbonnerie Démocratique' was founded in Paris to realise the sovereignty of the people. In 1831 the C. had driven Maria Louisa, Duchess of Parma, into exile for a short time. The ceremony of initiation in the vendita (or lodge) was full of symbols: a linen cloth, water, salt (this means Christianity), leaves, fire, a crown of white thorns (the struggles of the Good Cousins), were all used by the Grand Master. The martyrdom of Christ is dwelt upon in the 'second degree' of initiation. The degree of 'Grand Elect' was conferred upon a solemn, oath to fight to the death for universal liberty, if necessary, under the penalty of death with torture. The Grand Master Grand Elect' underwent a ridiculous mock crucifixion before attaining the highest degree. All members had pseudonyms, the register of real names being concealed in a separate place. There were also officers called insinuators, censors, coverers, and scrutators, the lowest grade being 'stabene,' or sedentaries. The Guelphic Knights' formed a sort of 'high lodge' of the C. Their supreme council sat at Bologna, the council consisting of six persons, who did not know each other, but communicated by means of an officer called the 'Visible.' The Delphic Priesthood' and the 'Latini' were also branches of the C. The 'Fratres' of Milan, the 'American Hunters' of Ravenna, the 'Sons of Mars' (who called their ' vendita' a bivouac, and their 'Good Cousin' a corporal), were later offshoots. In fact, Italy was a network of conspiracies. When Francis II. left Naples in 1860, the predominant society was the Camorra, of which the leading members have been lately arrested. It is said that Count Rossi was murdered by C. A vivid picture of the atmosphere of suspicion and deception which prevailed in Sicily at the beginning of this century may be found in George Sand's Le Piccinino. The C., under the name of Fraues Maçons in France, Illuminés in Germany, Radicals' in England, Communeros in Spain, have been specially condemned by Papal constitutions, as by Clement XII. in 1738, Pius VII. in 1821 (who says the C. are sprung de' liberi muratori condemned by Benedict XIV.), Leo XII. in 1826 (who mentions the Universitaires as a new and dangerous branch). So also in the Encyclic of 1864, ‘damnantur clandestina societates.'

4

Carbona'ted or Acidulated Waters are natural waters containing generally, in addition to saline compounds, an excess of carbonic acid gas, which causes them to effervesce at ordinary atmospheric pressure like artificial äerated waters. The water at Tunbridge Wells is an example of a C. chalybeate spring, and the alkaline waters of Vichy, Seltzers, Vals, Homburg, &c., contain large proportions of carbonate of sodium in addition to carbonic acid. The quantity of carbonic acid given out by some springs is enormous, amounting yearly to hundreds of tons. The waters of Neusalzwerk and Nauheim are said respectively to yield as much as from 1300 to 2000 tons of carbonic acid gas per annum. A considerable trade in natural C. waters now exists between Great Britain and the most famous Continental spas.

Carbon, Bisulphide of, is obtained by dropping sulphur into red-hot charcoal in an earthenware retort provided with a good condensing apparatus. It is a colourless, mobile liquid,. highly refractive and volatile (boiling point, 48° C.), and possesses a peculiar aromatic odour, which is not disagreeable if the bisulphide be quite pure, but is usually disagreeable from the presence of impurities. B. of C.. is an excellent solvent of oils, fats, resins, caoutchouc, phosphorus, sulphur, &c., and is employed. in the manufacture of vulcanised india-rubber..

Carbon'ic Acid, or Carbonic Anhydride, formerly called fixed air, is a gaseous compound of carbon and oxygen, the composition of which is represented by the formula CO2. C. A. occurs plentifully in nature, both in the free and combined conditions.. It is produced by the processes of Combustion (q. v.) and Respiration (q. v.), hence is always present in the air, though in minute quantity. The amount of C. A. in air would be much larger than it is were it not for the presence of plants, which absorb it into their tissues, there abstract and assimilate its carbon, and C. A. return its oxygen to the atmosphere in a pure condition. is also present in spring water, sometimes in such quantity that the water effervesces or sparkles; this is the case with the springs of Pyrrmont, Nauheim, &c. It is also produced during the processes of putrefaction, fermentation, and slow decay of animal and vegetable substances in presence of air. Compounds of C. A. with various bases are found in large quantities in nature. Chalk, limestone, marble, Iceland spar and marble, are all of them carbonate of calcium, a compound of C. A. with the base lime. Carbonate of iron (spathose iron ore) and carbonate of calcium and magnesium (dolomite) are also important minerals contain- | ing this substance. C. A may be prepared for experimental purposes by acting upon a carbonate with a dilute mineral acid: marble and dilute hydrochloric acid may be employed with advantage. If these be taken, the chemical reaction which occurs is as follows:

เ

C. A. under ordinary conditions is a colourless gas of sweetish taste. It is not poisonous, but acts in exactly the same manner as water when introduced into the lungs, that is to say, prevents the blood from absorbing oxygen, and eventually causes death by Asphyxia (q. v.) or suffocation. If subjected to extreme pressure (39 atmospheres at o C.), it condenses to a colourless very mobile liquid, which by its rapid evaporation when the pressure is removed produces such a low temperature that the re-. mainder is frozen to a snow-white solid. The lowest temperature ever obtained was produced by mixing solid C. A. with ether. C. A. is remarkable for its high specific gravity. It may be poured like water from one vessel to another. This property causes it to accumulate in holes and caverns, and many accidents have occurred through incautiously entering such localities. The introduction of a lighted candle into places in which accumulations of C. A. are suspected is a simple test for its presence in dangerous quantity, for then the flame is extinguished. It is slightly soluble in water under ordinary conditions, but its solubility is greatly augmented if it be forced into the water under pressure, though on removing the pressure the water effervesces from the disengagement of the gas... This property is turned to account in the manufacture of Aerated Waters (q. v.). It is remarkable that the introduction of C. A. into the lungs should be so deleterious, whereas if introduced into the stomach it acts beneficially as a tonic and gentle stimu

C. A. is absorbed with great activity by the alkalies and alkaline earths, a property which is utilised in the determination of this gas, and in its separation from other gases. It is largely employed by the manufacturers of äerated bread and äerated waters.

Carbon'ic Ox'ide is a compound of carbon and oxygen, the composition of which is represented by the formula CO, whereas that of carbonic acid is represented by the formula CO2. C. O., therefore, contains half as much oxygen as carbonic acid. It and Lassonne, but was first accurately investigated by Woodhouse was discovered towards the end of the last century by Priestley some years later. It may be obtained by passing carbonic acid over red-hot charcoal..

Owing to its strong affinity at a high temperature for oxygen, C. O. plays an important part in the reduction of iron and other metals from their oxides. (See IRON and BLAST FURNACE.) It acts as a narcotic poison, and in this respect differs from carbonic acid, which possesses no poisonous properties, but which, like water, cannot be introduced into the lungs without causing suffocation. Many deaths have occurred from infires are burning-death resulting, in such cases, not from the cautiously sleeping in badly-ventilated rooms in which charcoal action of the carbonic acid, but from that of the carbonic oxide.

Carbonif'erous System, the term applied to those formations, generally of characteristic and independent kind, which overlie the Devonian or Old Red Sandstone rocks, and which in turn lie beneath those of the Permian system. The name 'C.' is derived from a principal feature in their chemical composition, in virtue of which they become of high importance to man, as providing him with a chief source of coal. Lime and iron may also be enumerated among the industrial products of this system. Coal, however, it is to be remembered, is not confined to these rocks, but also occurs in newer as well as older and different strata. A great proportion of this system of rocks, indeed, is made up of sandstones, shales, and limestones, the coal occurring in comparatively thin beds. These rocks are largely developed in Britain, Europe generally, and N. America. In India (as at Damoodah, Nagpur, &c.) large coalfields occur, and in Australia this system is also represented. The C. rocks are divided into the

(1) lower C. rocks (C. slates and mountain limestones), (2) the millstone grit, and (3) the coal measures. The first-mentioned strata, constituting the base of the system, attain a thickness in Ireland (C. slates) of 5000 feet. The C. limestone in its typical development, as seen in Wales and the W. of England, is a pure limestone, from 1000 to 2000 feet thick, with beds of shale. The millstone grit, lying above the C. limestone, consists of sandy and gritty beds, lying either conformably or uncomformably on the latter, and averaging about 1500 feet in thickness. Fossils are scarce in these strata. The Coal measures lie conformably above the millstone grit, and consist of a thick series of beds of sandstone, shale, grit, and coal. From these measures true coal is chiefly obtained, but in Scotland workable seams occur below the millstone grit. In their greatest development the C. measures attain a thickness of from 7000 to 15,000 feet. Their shales are black, laminated, and earthy; their sandstones are yellow, brown, and purple, and rarely red; and beds of limestone and of clay-iron ore occur, along with the typical coal-beds

of various thicknesses. The S. Wales coalfield shows alternating series of sandstones, shales, and coal, the latter beds numbering about eighty in this field alone. Each coal-bed rests upon sandy shale or clay, termed the 'floor,' which contains Stigmaria fossils, or the roots of the Sigillariæ (q. v.). A bed of shalethe 'roof'-lies above each coal-seam, and contains numerous plant fossils.

The C. period is chiefly notable as presenting us with a large and varied assemblage of fossil plants-Ferns, Calamites, Lepidodendra, Sigillariæ, &c. Cryptogamic vegetation flourished plentifully in this epoch. The Protozoa, or lowest animals, are represented by Sponges, Foraminifera, &c.; the Calenterata by Corals, &c; the Echinozoa by Crinoids and other genera; the Annulosa by Crustacea (Trilobites, &c.), Insects, Arachnidans, and Myriapods; the Mollusca by Polyzoa, Brachiopoda, Bivalves, Gasteropods, and Cephalopods; and the Vertebrata by Ganoid and other fishes, Amphibia, and probably true Reptiles.

1

Car'buncle (Lat. carbunculus, 'a small coal'), the lapidary and jeweller's name for a variety of the Garnet (q. v.), which is cut en cabochon. It is of a bright red hue. The mineralogists call it pyrope. The C. was a favourite gem among the ancients. Carbuncle, in medicine, sometimes called Anthrax, a Greek word also meaning 'coal,' is essentially an inflammation of the skin, limited in extent, occurring most frequently in the same parts as Boil (q. v.). The skin, which assumes a bright red colour, becomes very much thickened by the infiltration of the inflammatory products, sometimes more than one inch in thickness. The C. is accompanied by burning pain, and a sense of tightness in the parts, together with great constitutional disorder. If left to itself, it is apt to slough, and ultimately to involve the deeper tissues, forming an abscess. It is generally single, and varies very much in size. The affection is most common in middle life and in advanced years, especially among those who live sumptuously. The treatment consists in free and early incisions through the whole diseased mass, followed by the application of soothing poultices, when the mass gradually sloughs out. At first a brisk purge is beneficial, after which tonics and nourishing, non-stimulating food should be administered to the patient. Car'burretted Hydrogen. Although this term might be employed to designate any of the numerous compounds of carbon and hydrogen, it is restricted by long custom to two of these only-viz., light C.H., or Marsh Gas (q. v.), CH4; and heavy C. H., Ethylene or Olefiant Gas (q. v.),C2H4.

Carcajen'te, a town of Spain, province of Valencia, in a fertile plain near the right bank of the Jucar, 25 miles S. of Valencia, with which it is connected by railway. The Marquis of Calzada has a large palace here. The trade of C. is chiefly in grain, fruit, and silk. Pop. 7280.

Car'canet (Fr. a diminutive of carcan, a collar;' Old Fr. quercant, from Old High Ger. querca, the throat'), a jewelled chain or necklace, for the manufacturing of which Venice was famous in the 15th c.

Car'cass, in ammunition, a thick cast-iron spherical shell discharged from mortars and other smooth-bore ordnance for incendiary purposes. It is filled with a composition consisting of saltpetre, sulphur, rosin, antimony, sulphide, turpentine, and

tallow, which is ignited by means of a quick-match placed in three vents on the upper hemisphere, through which the composition continues to burn for from three to twelve minutes, according to the size of the projectile. Previous to the present century, oblong carcasses encircled with iron bars covered with canvas and cord were in use in the British service, and it is supposed that the term 'C.' refers to the ribs of iron and skeleton frame of these obsolete 'fire-balls."

Carcassone', the capital of the department of Aude, France, on both banks of the Aude, 55 miles S. E. of Toulouse by railway. It consists of an ancient and a modern portion. The former still retains the old fortifications, the castle and donjon, which made it a place of importance from the earliest times down to the 14th c. It contains also the splendid old cathedral of St Nazaire, rebuilt in the 11th c., and it communicates by two bridges with the modern town, which is regularly built. C. employs 2000 persons in the manufacture of cloth, which it exports in large quantity to America, in grain, fruit, and wine. Pop. (1872) 18,396. C., the ancient Carcasso, was in existence before the Romans entered Gaul. It suffered greatly during the Albigensian wars.

Britain.

It has also much trade

Car'damine, a genus of plants belonging to the natural order Cruciferæ. The best-known is C. pratensis, the bitter cress, cuckoo-flower, or lady's smock, common in most meadows in time they were held in high esteem as a cure for epilepsy, espeThe flowers are stimulant and diaphoretic; at one cially in children. The leaves of this species, as well as of C. amara and C. hirsuta, are occasionally used as salads, C. amara being especially popular in Saxony. C. pratensis is much used as an anti-scorbutic in the N. of Europe. The names of 'cuckooflower' and 'lady's smock' are said to be due to the fact that C. pratensis flowers at the time of the coming of the cuckoo, and covers the meadows with its flowers so profusely as to look at a distance like linen bleaching. On the Scottish borders it is known as pinks, spinks, bog-spinks, or the Mayflower. It is the lady's smock' of the English poets.

Car'damoms are the dried capsules, with their contained seeds, of certain plants of the natural order Zingiberaceæ (q. v.). Various species of Amomum and Elettaria yield C. Amomum cardamomum yields the C. of Siam, Sumatra, and Java; A. aromaticus, the Bengal C. aromaticus, the Bengal C. Medicinal C. are got from Elettaria These plants are natives of cercardamomum, the Malabar C. tain forests on the Malabar coast, 3000 to 5000 feet above the level of the sea. The seeds are angular and corrugated, with an agreeable taste and smell. They are best kept in their capsules until required for use. They owe their virtue to a colourC. are less volatile oil, C10H16, constituting about 4 per cent. good stomachics, make a pleasant cordial, and are extensively used as a condiment for correcting the griping of purgative medicines, and for rendering other medicines palatable.

mathematician, was born at Pavia, September 24, 1501. He Cardan, Geronimo, an Italian physician, philosopher, and took the degree of M.A. at Venice in 1524, and that of M.D. at Padua in 1525. The greater part of his life was spent at Milan, whither he went in 1529, and where he held for a time a chair of Mathematics. Here he compiled the Ars Magna, Sive de Regulis Algebraicis (1545), a work which placed him in the front rank of mathematicians, and his De Subtilitate Libri XXI. (1550), considered by some to be his most important work. Like the De Rerum Varietate Libri XVII. (1557), it enables us to see the extent of C.'s knowledge in physics, metaphysics, and natural history. In 1552 he visited Scotland, and, returning by England, predicted, upon astrological principles, that Edward VI. would have long life. After travelling in France, Germany, and other European countries, C. returned to Milan, where he remained till 1562, when he went to Bologna. The last six years of his life he spent as a pensioner of Pope Gregory XIII. at Rome, vation, in order to fulfil his own prediction of the time of his where he died, September 21, 1576, some say of voluntary star

death. His name is best known in the mathematical world in connection with a rule for solving cubic equations, also known as Tartaglia's rule. His writings are extremely numerous, but are not of great value. Upwards of 220 on all sorts of subjects have been printed. The best edition is that of Sponius (10 vols. Lyon, 1663). See Crosley's Life and Times of C. (2 vols. Lond. 1836).