ground to a fine powder. This is baked up into a stiff cake with a pure solution of gum arabic, rolled out to the required thickness, and the lozenges cut out by hand or machine. They are then put aside to harden and dry in trays. The paste may be tinted with any colouring material, and flavourings such as peppermint, ginger, clove, rose, musk, &c., are introduced in the baking. Medicated lozenges are an elegant and pleasant| form of administering minor remedies for coughs, children's ailments, &c., when suitable ingredients are introduced into the paste; but the use of lozenges containing morphia, codeia, and other narcotic substances should be carefully guarded. Pastilles are preparations containing a large proportion of gum, in which the sugar is wholly dissolved, and they are usually tinted and flavoured with fruit essences. Preparations of boiled sugar form a distinct class by themselves, and occur in a variety of forms, such as 'drops,' barley-sugar, rock, balls, &c., variously tinted and flavoured. The sugar is dissolved by heat over a fire, care being taken to keep it from burning, and when poured out in thin layers, it is worked up into its various forms, after it has acquired such a plasticity as enables it to be handled. Toffee or butter-scotch is made by boiling up sugar, honey, and butter together, but frequently the honey is altogether omitted from the preparation. The French excel in the preparation of various sweets, and their fondants have often an exquisite flavour, and are manufactured in a very attractive manner.

Confederation of the Rhine, a confederacy formed by Napoleon when he destroyed the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. It consisted of sixteen German princes, who disowned connection with the ancient empire, allied themselves with France, and acknowledged Napoleon as protector of the league. It undertook to furnish him, in war, with 63,000 soldiers. This unpatriotic alliance was dissolved in 1813, on the fall of Napoleon, and the Germanic Confederation was constituted in its place in 1815.

Con'ference, in English law, means the professional interview of an attorney or solicitor and counsel. When barristers meet professionally for friendly deliberation, the meeting is called

a consultation.

Conference, Wesleyan. See WESLEYAN CONFERENCE. Confer'va, the type of the division of green-spored Alga (q. v.), called Confervacea. They are exceedingly delicate, threadlike, articulated, cellular plants, found mantling the surface of stagnant pools, and constituting much of the scum' of such collecscum' of such collections of water. When dry, the masses of confervæ look like cotton, and, indeed, have been used as a packing instead of tow, to support fractured limbs. It has been proposed to apply these cotton-like masses to economic purposes, but the project has not yet taken any tangible shape.

Confession, in the ecclesiastical sense, means the acknow ledgment of sin, accompanied with submission to penitential discipline, and the reception of an authorised sentence of reconciliation. All Christians admit that they are to confess their sins to God. The sacrifices or 'sin-offerings' which, from the first, were offered to Jehovah for pardon of sin, always implied C. of that sin, whether openly expressed or not. According to the Jews, repentance could not be complete without C., of which their Rabbis enumerated three kinds. The ministry of John the Baptist was based on the same principle. In the early Christian Church, C. was practised, along with other exercises, as a preparation for baptism; and this C. was sometimes public and sometimes private. In the case of public, scandalous offences, transgressors were obliged particularly to promise to forsake them; but no public or particular C. of private offences was required of men at baptism, beyond what was implied in the general renunciation of Satan and all his works. Those who were guilty of public, notorious, and scandalous crimes after baptism had to undergo public Penance (q. v.) before being again admitted to the communion. As to private offences, sometimes public C. and penance were made for them, and sometimes a public minister was appointed to hear men's C. and direct their repentance; but this was by no means an essential condition for communion, much less was auricular C. and private absolution from a priest; it was all a matter of advice and free choice. But in the fourth Lateran Council (1215) Pope Innocent III. published a decree, requiring it to be held as an article of faith that every one is bound,

by a positive divine ordinance, to confess his sins to a priest, and the dogma of auricular C. was fully established in the Roman Catholic Church. In the standards of the Church of England, C. is permitted, and in some cases recommended. The practice fell into almost complete disuse, however, after the Reformation; but in modern times it has had a great revival in the High Church party. See Bingham's Antiquities of the Christian Church.

Confession, in law, means avowal or admission of an allegation. In England, in a criminal case, a jury may convict a prisoner on his C. without further evidence, provided it be made without intimidation or bribe. In Scotland, corroboration is required, the C. being merely held as evidence. In a civil action, refusal to deny an allegation within the knowledge of the party is held as C. of its truth. C. before an ecclesiastical court, even though followed by public Church censure, is not in Scotland held as proof in any civil or criminal matter by a lay court.

Confession and Avoi'dance is, in common-law pleading in England, the admission of an allegation of the opposite party, but with the addition of some circumstance which destroys its legal effect.

Confession, Judgment by, in England, is judgment against a defendant on his admission of the law and facts alleged against him.

Confes'sional is an enclosed seat or recess in Roman

confession.

Catholic churches in which a priest sits to hear penitents make The usual place used to be an open seat in the chancel; the modern C., resembling a sentry-box, with a small window for penitents to speak through, being of recent introduction.

Confessions of Faith might be called elaborated Creeds (q. v.). The principal C. of F. extant, which were composed at the time of the Reformation or soon after, are the following Confession of the Roman Catholic Church, contained in the decrees of the Council of Trent (q. v.); Confession of the Lutheran Church, contained in the three ancient creeds, the Augsburg Confession (q. v.), and Melancthon's Apology, the Articles of Schmalkald, Luther's Catechisms, the Concordienformel, and the Articles of Visitation (1592); Confession of the Reformed or Calvinistic Churches-the Helvetic, Tetrapolitan, Gallic, Palatine or Heidelberg, and Belgic; Confession of the Anglican Church-the Thirty-nine Articles (q. v.); the Confession of the English and Scotch Presbyterian Church, and the Westminster Confession of Faith and Catechisms, drawn up by the Assembly of Divines who sat at Westminster from 1643 to 1649.

Con'fident Person means in law an intimate associate or dependent. The term is especially applied to a partner in business, steward, agent, or servant of any one. Deeds of an insolvent person in favour of those so connected with him, if granted without adequate consideration, are in Scotland reducible by statute. See CONJUNCT PERSONS, COLLUSION, CONSIDERA

TION.

Confidentiality, in law, denotes the legal privilege which some communications have. Letters between agent and client have the privilege of C. No action of damage can be founded on them, nor can either be required to produce them in a suit or action. How far the privilege extends has been the subject of much legal discussion. It has been decided that a former agent is bound to secrecy, and in England the tendency of decisions has been towards a wide view of the privilege (see Dickson on Evidence). In Scotland it is still doubtful whether confessions made by a criminal to a clergyman are privileged. In England it has been decided that they are not. Physicians are not entitled to withhold communications, however confidential. Roman Catholic countries the 'Seal of Confession' is held inviolable. Husband and wife are admissible as witnesses for and against each other in civil suits, but neither is a competent witness against the other in a criminal case. See EVIDENCE.

In

Confirma'tion is a rite supplementary of the sacrament of baptism, and without which no one is admitted to the sacrament of the Lord's supper. It means literally a strengthening, and is so called because they who receive it are understood to be strengthened thereby for the fulfilment of their Christian duties. There has been a controversy between Romanists and

says, 'when the wind blows across it.' In the same way women have always been oppressed in China; 'talkativeness' being one of the seven grounds of divorce laid down by C. The despotic principles thus applied to the five relations of society (including those of friendship and of elder and younger brother), must have been useful in establishing the centralisation of the imperial power, and the suppression of feudalism. C.'s negative expression of the Golden Rule of Christ has often been commented on; his ethical code, however, permits blood-revenge, a thing repugnant to Christian ethics. See Legge's Chinese Classics.

Confu'sion, a term of Scotch law, denoting the extinction or suspension of an obligation by the debt and credit devolving

on the same person.

Con'ger Eel (C. vulgaris), a genus of Teleostei, included in the sub-order Malacopteri (apoda), and differing from the ordinary eels (Anguilla), chiefly in the length of the dorsal fins, which commence above the pectoral fins. The upper jaw is larger than the under jaw. The tail is elongated and pointed. The C. E. may attain a length of from 3 to 6 feet, and a thickness equal to that of a human leg. The colour is a brownish-black above, and a white beneath. It is the only British species, and is fished chiefly on the S. coasts of Britain. The flesh is coarse, and used for food only by the poorer classes. The baits used in its capture are small fishes of various kinds.

Conger Eel.

Congestion, in medicine, is a term used to denote that condition in which there is excess of blood in a part of the system. It is of three kinds :—(1) Active C., in which there is an increased flow of blood to a part through the arteries. This occurs in all local inflammations, and was denominated by the older surgeons determination of blood to the part. It may result from the application of some irritant, as is seen in the redness produced by a mustard-poultice, which is due to the increased flow of blood to that part. Active C. often ends in hæmorrhage, especially when situated in a mucous membrane, as in the stomach or bowels. (2) Passive C., when the excess of blood in the parts is due to want of tone in the small blood-vessels (capillaries). These capillaries are dilated, and the circulation of the blood in the part is sluggish, and as a consequence the serum of the blood is exuded, and dropsy is the result. Passive C. is often the result of Active C. (3) The Mechanical C. of some authors is C. due to obstruction in some vein, as a tumour pressing on a vein. Tight garters will produce C. of the lower extremities. Pregnancy often produces the same kind of C. Mechanical C. produces a variety of passive C. In active C. the part is generally bright red; in passive C. it is more or less of a dark-purple colour. The latter kind is often seen after debilitating diseases, giving rise to dropsy of the lower extremities, which is always aggravated by the erect posture. Treatment of C. will depend on the kind of C. present. In all cases the cause is to be removed if practicable. In passive C., iron tonics internally, and astringents, as alum or zinc, externally, will often do good.

Con'gleton, a market-town and borough, Cheshire, on the Dane, 33 miles E. of Chester, with manufactures of cotton and silk. C. silk fabrics are of superior quality. Many of the houses consist of timber-framing and plaster, which gives the town a picturesque and ancient appearance. Pop. (1871) 11,344.

Conglomerate, or Pudding-Stone, is a rock composed of water-worn peebles (usually quartz or other highly siliceous mineral), cemented together by a matrix of sand, clay, or lime. It indicates the position of a former coast-line, and a subsequent depression below the sea. Breccia differs from C. in being made up of angular fragments.

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Con'go, Laire, or Nza'di, a large river in Lower Guinea, flowing into the Atlantic at lat. 6° S. Though 10 miles broad at the mouth, with an estimated drainage area of 800,000 sq. miles and a discharge of 2,500,000 cubic feet of water per second, it is not navigable for any distance, owing to the numerous rapids which mark its course. In his Two Trips to Gorilla Land and the Cataracts of the Congo (Low & Co., 2 vols. Lond. 1876), Captain Burton gives much new information. From the Yellala or Great Rapids, 116 miles from the mouth, the total fall is 390 feet; and in the first 5 miles of this distance the fall is 100 feet. The scenery is described as being very beautiful; but the river has not yet been explored further up. Its source was formerly supposed to be among the Mossamba Mountains, in the E. of Benguela; but the recent discoveries of Lieutenant Cameron, in his late journey across the continent, point to the great probability of its connection with the central water system of Africa, possibly with the Lualaba itself. C. is also the name of the contiguous territory, a very fertile and lovely country, producing oil-palms, sugar, lemons, and other sub-tropical fruits, and abounding in the wild animals common to W. Africa. In his Angola and the River Congo (Macmillan & Co., 2 vols. 1876), Mr Monteiro brings many new facts to light regarding flows. The mineral resources are immense, but can never be the fauna, flora, and geology of the region through which the C. fully developed under the incompetent rule of Portugal.

Congrega'tion means—(1) in its largest sense, the visible Church, or the whole body of Christian people considered as assembled in some act of fellowship; and then popularly (2) the worshippers assembled in a particular place: (3) Again it was the ancient name for a Chapter (q. v.); and (4) in the Roman Catholic Church it means a council or court. of cardinals and other divines.

Congrega'tionalists, the proper name of the body of Christians, best known as Independents (q. v.).

Con'gress is the term applied to a conference of European sovereigns, or of their plenipotentiaries, to consider matters of international interest, and generally to adjust the Balance of Power (q.v.). Such were the Congresses of Vienna, held in 1815; of Carlsbad, in 1819, for adjusting the position of Germany; and of London, in 1826, for fixing the fate of Greece. At a C. there is no presentation of credentials on the part of the members, although they exchange and examine the warrants under which they act. In the U.S., C. has another meaning, being a collective name for the Senate and the House of Representatives, or the legislative branch of the Government; at the same time it is understood that even there it had originally a similar meaning to what it has in Europe, being first applied to the conferences of delegates from the various British colonies who met 7th October 1765 to consider their grievances.

Con'greve, William, one of the greatest of our comic dramatists, was born in Stafford in February 1670, and educated at Dublin. He soon abandoned the law-for which he had

studied-in favour of literature. His first comedy, The Old Bachelor, written at the age of twenty-three, won him the patronage of Lord Halifax, through whom he obtained a place in the Pipe Office and a post in the customs. After writing two comedies, The Double Dealer and Love for Love, he produced the Mourning Bride, a stilted tragedy, which met with enormous success. His last comedy, the Way of the World, being coldly received, he gave up writing plays, and spent the rest of his life in wealthy leisure. He died 19th January 1729. His career was eminently successful. Ministers competed to offer him sinecures; poets competed to praise his works. Dryden, Pope, Swift, Steele, and Addison were united in admiration of him. There is little humour, and, excepting in Love for Love, little feeling in his plays, but, although immoral, they are free from the beastliness of Wycherley, to whom C. is immeasurably superior. The Way of the World is a masterpiece of brilliant dialogue; there is in it a perpetual sparkle of piquant conceits, arch raillery, and sprightly repartee and innuendo. The best edition of C. is that by Leigh Hunt (Lond. 1849). See also Thackeray's English Humourists, and Macaulay's Essay on the Comic Dramatists of the Restoration.

Congreve Rocket. See ROCKET.

225

Co'ni, or Cuneo, an episcopal city of N. Italy, and capital of a province of the same name, at the confluence of the Stura and Gesso, 48 miles S. W. of Turin, with which it is connected by railway. The streets, with the exception of the principal one, which has arcades throughout its entire length, are mere lanes. The position of C. gives it a large traffic with Lombardy, Switzerland, and Germany, the merchandise from the port of Nice for these countries passing through it. Pop. (1871) 22,882.

Con'ic Sec'tions. See CONE.

Coniferæ, an order of Dicotyledonous trees and shrubs, chiefly remarkable for the seeds being naked, and lying behind scales (generally woody), which make up the compound fruit called a cone (hence the name C., or cone-bearers). They also They also constitute the subdivision Gymnosperma, or naked seeded plants. There are two sub-orders-(1) Abietina, of which Pinus abies, and Auracaria are examples, and (2) Cupressinea, of which Cupressinea, of which Juniperus, Cupressus, and Taxodium may be taken as the types. Some of the species are rather variable, and have been unnecessarily multiplied on very slight grounds. The number may be given at about 130; they are distributed all over the world, but chiefly in northern and temperate climates. The region of America immediately to the W. of the Rocky Mountains is rich in some very beautiful forms, e.g., Sequoia sempervirens and Sequoia (Wellingtonia) gigantea, the latter of which is one of the largest known trees. It grows in two or three clumps in the Sierra Nevada and vicinity, in California, and though the height of these 'big trees,' as they are called in California, has been much exaggerated, the highest reaches 325 feet, and the stump of one which had fallen before the grove was discovered by the whites, is 30 feet in diameter. feet in diameter. A house is now erected on it, in which dancing-parties are held. Neither this species, nor its close ally Sequoia sempervirens (the redwood), has been ever found in the neighbouring state of Oregon, or, indeed, out of California. The order possesses many excellent timber trees, which also yield resin, pitch, tar, turpentine, &c. The wood of all of them is marked with dots or discs, by which it can at once be distinguished under the microscope. The Yews (q. v.) are by some authors considered as a tribe of C. (Taxinea), and by others as a distinct order (Taxacea), comprising, in addition to the yew proper (Taxus), Dacrydium, an Antarctic genus, one of which (Dacrydium Franklinii) is the Huon pine of Australia, and the Kakaterro (Dacrydium taxifolium), of the same country; while the Dimon pine (also of New Zealand) is another member of the same genus, viz., Dacrydium cupressinum, Podocarpus, and Salisburia. The Gnetacea, or jointed firs, are also closely allied to this order, but will be considered separately.

Coni'ine is an Alkaloid (q. v.) contained in hemlock (Conium maculatum), and is a volatile liquid, boiling at 168° C. It possesses a powerful, pungent odour, like that of tobacco, and is very poisonous. C. is a strong base, and forms crystalline salts with acids. Its composition is represented by the formula C8H15N. It has been prepared artificially.

Coniros tres, a sub-order of Insessorial (q. v.) or Perching birds, distinguished primarily by the conical shape or form of the beak, whilst the upper mandible is not markedly toothed at its apex. Of this group the Sparrows (q. v.), hawfinch or finch, crows, starlings, hornbills, finches, and larks are good examples. These birds are chiefly granivorous in habits. Co'nium. See HEMLOCK.

Conjuga'tion (Lat. conjugo, 'I yoke together') is the grammatical designation of the classes into which verbs have been divided, with the view of exhibiting collectively the various methods of denoting the relation of voice, person, number, mood, and tense. These relations are expressed in some languages (as in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin) by additions to and alterations upon words. As the mechanism of inflections practically draws half the verb-stem; and in others (as in English, &c.) by distinct example of the former class. its facts from Latin and its derivatives, we shall take Latin as an In Latin verbs the inflections in

a C. express the voices, active and passive (sometimes called reciprocal, or middle); the numbers, singular and plural; the persons in each number, first, second, third; the moods, indicative, subjunctive, and imperative; the tenses, present, future, and imperfect, denoting incomplete action, and perfect, future perfect, and pluperfect, denoting complete action. There are also comprehended in C. indeclinable substantives, called infinitives, verbal adjectives, called participles, a verbal substantive, Gerund, and a verbal adjective, Gerundin, and the supines, the accusative, and the ablative case of a verbal noun. Every person in the Latin verb is a complete sentence, the simplest form being found in the singular of the present indicative active, where we have only the stem and the person-word, ama-s, thou lovest.' The word scrib-er-e-ur-nt exhibits the inflections attached to the stem to express the various verbal relations: scrib, the stem, signifies write; er, indicates past time e, the subjunctive mood; nt, the person in the plural, they;' and ur, the passive voice. The ordinary Latin conjugations are four in number, distinguished by the last or characteristic letter of the stem: (1) verbs whose stems end in a; (2) in ē; (3) in a consonant, in u, or in ž; and (4) in i. In English, as in all the German dialects, there are two great conjugations, distinguished by the form of the preterite. The first, called the Strong C., forms the preterite from the root without the addition of any foreign element: as ride, rode; fling, flung; hold, held. The second, called Weak C., comprises verbs that form their preterites like kill, kill-ed; move, move-d; dip, dip-t. The verbs of the Strong C. are comparatively few in number, but they are all native English, and give our speech much of its peculiar strength and flavour; the Weak C., on the other hand, is recruited by all the contingents derived from other languages. (See Latham's English Language, ch. i. ss. 17-25, and Whitney's Language and its Study.)

Con'junct Persons. Under the Bankruptcy Statutes of Scotland, all those who, by their relationship to one who is insolvent, would be legally incapable of being witnesses or judges in a cause in which he might be concerned, are termed C. P. Deeds in favour of any conjunct person by the insolvent, if granted without adequate consideration, are, under statute, reduSee CONFIDENT PERSONS, CONSIDERATION. Conjunc'tion, in astronomy. Two heavenly bodies are said to be in C. when they occupy the same portion of the heavens, as, for instance, the sun and moon at new moon. When Mercury and Venus are between us and the sun, they are said to be in

cible.

Conjoin'ing of Pro'cesses, a term of Scotch law. Where two or more processes in the Court of Session relate to the same matter and affect the same parties, the court may conjoin them. They are then discussed together as one group.

Con'jugal Rights, a Suit for Restitu'tion of, is a suit arising from a husband or wife, without legal cause, insisting on living separately; in which case, the ecclesiastical courts will compel them to come together, if either,' as Blackstone remarks, 'be weak enough to desire it.'

being altered from 'he is here, I know that.' (See Morris' English Accidence, ch. xvi., and Latham's Eng. Lan., ch. xxvi.)

Conjunct'ly and Sev'erally, a Scotch law-term denoting the form of obligation by which two or more persons become each bound to discharge the whole obligation. A creditor in such circumstances may either exact performance in part from each, or enforce the whole obligation against one, leaving him to seek relief from the rest. The corresponding term in English law is Joint and Several (q. v.). There is some difference there shown in the law of the two countries with regard to joint obligations.

Conjuring. See MAGIC and INCANTATION.

Conn, Lough, a lake in the county of Mayo, Ireland, together with Lough Cullin, from which it is separated by a narrow channel, crossed by a bridge called the Pontoon, is 13 miles long and from 1 to 3 broad, and is studded with isles.

Connara'ceæ, a natural order of calycifloral Dicotyledonous trees or shrubs, consisting of about forty-two species, natives of the tropics of America and of the Old World. The best-known of the six or seven genera are Boswellia, Balsamodendron, and Amyris. They are universally characterised by the abundance of fragrant resinous or gum-resinous juice which they possess. A few furnish good timber; some are poisonous; while others are bitter, purgative, or anthelmintic. Amyris hexandra and A. Plumieri are said to yield some of the elemi of commerce, but this is more than doubtful. Equally doubtful, according to Bentley, is the statement that A. balsamifera furnishes one of the kinds of Lignum Rhodium. A. commophhora is believed on better grounds to be the source of African bdellium. The leaves of Balanites Egyti aca are anthelmintic; the fruits are purgative, and the seeds yield a fixed fatty oil called Zachun in Egypt. Omphalobium Lambertii of Guiana furnishes zebra-wood. For the other economic products of the order, see BALSAMODENDRON, BOSWELLIA, CANARIUM, ELAPHRIUM, and ICICA.

Conn'aught, the westmost, smallest, and most barren of the four provinces of Ireland, bounded N. and W. by the Atlantic, S. by Munster, and E. by Leinster and Ulster, comprises the five counties of Galway, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon, and Sligo. Its greatest length is 105 miles; its greatest breadth, 92 miles: area, 6863 sq. miles. The W. coast, indented with numerous bays and harbours, presents a great variety of the most picturesque scenery. From 1841 to 1871 the population, owing to emigration and other causes, fell from 1,420,705 to 846,213. C. is the most purely Celtic and wretched part of Ireland. It was long ruled by the O'Connors, but passed under English authority in the reign of Elizabeth, and was then subdivided into counties.

Connecticut (pron. Conneticut), one of the original thirteen states of the Union, lies between Massachusetts on the N., Rhode Island on the E., Long Island Sound on the S., and New York on the W. Area, 4674 sq. miles. Pop. (1870) 537,454. It is watered by the C., the Housatonic, the Thames, the Farmington, and the Quinepiack. Much of the soil is poor; in the N.W. it is hilly; in the centre it is sândy and gravelly; but in the valley of the C. river there is a large tract of fertile and meadow land, extending from Wethersfield into Massachusetts, and producing large crops of hay, tobacco, maize, onions, and fruits. In 1871, 4761 acres produced 8,094,000 lbs. of tobacco, valued at $2,023,500. The farm produce of 1870 was $26,482,150. C. has varied mineral resources, as iron at Salis$26,482,150. C. has varied mineral resources, as iron at Salisbury, cobalt and nickel and valuable freestone at Portland. It is noted for its numerous industries, and every stream has been utilised for machinery. The staple manufactures are clocks, carriages, arms, cutlery, plated silver, paper, copper, brass, and indiarubber goods. Banking and insurance are extensive. In 1870 the assessed value of the state was $425,433,237; state debt in

C. ('the land of steady habits') was colonised by the New England Puritans, who arrived in Windsor and Hartford in 1633, and in Newhaven in 1638, and their churches were established by law till about 1818. Charles II. granted the colony a charter in 1661, which remained in force till 1818. During the time of James II. it was concealed for safety in the 'charter oak' tree.

Connecticut (Ind. Quonetocut, 'the long river'), the largest river between the Hudson and the St John, rises in 45° 15′ N. lat., and flows S. between Vermont and New Hampshire, crosses Massachusetts and the state of C., and enters Long Island Sound feet from its source. at Saybrook, after a course of 400 miles, and a descent of 1600 It is navigable to the city of Hartford (50 miles) for vessels drawing 8 feet of water. It is famous for its shad, a large and most delicate fish. The river in spring overflows and enriches large tracts of meadow land, and the valley presents many scenes of varied and cultivated beauty. Connec'tive. See STAMENS.

A

Connective Tiss'ue. This name is given by modern histologists to a number of tissues which originate from the same primary structures in the middle layer of the embryo. (See EMBRYO.) Although widely different from each other, both chemically and histologically, in the mature condition, yet on account of this primary relationship they are usually grouped together under the name of C. T. The members of the group are cartilage, mucoid tissue, reticular C. T., ordinary Č. T., usually known under the name of white fibrous, or areolar tissue, fatty or adipose tissue, bone, and one of the principal substances entering into the composition of tooth, called dentine. description of the histological characters of these various tissues will be found under their appropriate headings. The reasons for grouping these tissues together are-(1) Embryological. They are formed from the same layer of the embryo. (2) Comparative histological. In the bodies of lower animals these tissues frequently replace each other; thus what in one animal is ordinary C. T., in another is reticular C. T., or cartilage, or bone--or bone may be replaced by dentine. (3) Pathological. It is found that in morbid changes nearly every member of the C. T. group may be replaced by nearly any other, either by metamorphosis or by reconstruction from the offspring of the original tissue. The C. T. group form a framework for supporting the other tissues, such as vessels, glandular cells, muscular fibres, and nerves. In disease, as has been shown by Virchow, the great German pathologist, the C. T. group is often the most active tissue of the body, and many luxuriant growths and tumours may be traced to it. According to Frey, an authority in matters relating to minute structure, the histological characters of the group of connective tissues are―The embryonic rudiments consist of aggregations of spheroidal formative cells, having no membrane, and enclosing nuclei. A soft, homogeneous intercellular matter of albuminous character is formed between these cells. In course of time the cells as well as the intercellular substance undergo changes. The intercellular matter divides into fibrous masses or fibrille, while the cells become short and stunted, or may unite together by long processes so as to form a delicate network. Sometimes calcification, or a deposition of earthy salts, chiefly those of lime, occurs in the intercellular substance. Coincidently with those histological changes, chemical metamorphoses also occur-the albuminous matter of an early period giving place to mucin, chondrin, or elastic matter.

Connoisseur (Fr. from (old) connoitre, 'to know;' Lat. cognoscere, 'to become acquainted with ') is one whose knowledge and comprehension of art is complete enough to entitle him to