Cotton-Grass, or Cotton-Rush (Eriophorum), a genus of plants belonging to the natural order Cyperaceae (tribe Scirpeæ), so called from the fine silky hairs or bristles which spring from the base of the ovary, and give the plants the appearance of being topped by cottony tufts, especially when seen waving in the wind on the bleak moors on which they grow. This cotton has been used for stuffing pillows, making candle-wicks, &c., and it has even been proposed to utilise it for textile purposes. The stem of the Himalayan species, called Bhabhur (E. cannabinum), yields a fibre of which strong ropes are made. There are several British species (E. angustifolium, &c.), the leaves of which were at one time employed as a remedy for diarrhoea, and the pith as a vermifuge for tapeworm.

Cotton, Gun. See GUN-Cotton.

Cotton, Sir Robert Bruce, an eminent antiquary, was born at Denton, in Huntingdonshire, January 22, 1570. He was educated at Cambridge, and afterwards resided at London, where he devoted himself to archæology, and collected a number of charters, deeds, manuscripts, &c. (in many cases obtaining them from the monasteries, which had been dissolved half a century before), of the greatest value for their bearing upon the history and constitution of Britain. C. was knighted by King James, who employed him to defend Mary Queen of Scots against the shameful attack of Buchanan (q. v.), and published a pamphlet on the question of precedency between England and Spain, and another on the antiquity and dignity of Parliaments. Latterly, however, he lost the royal favour, and was even shut out from his own library. He died 6th May 1631.

The Cottonian Library is the library of Sir R. B. C., considerably increased by his son and grandson, which was invested in trustees for the benefit of the public. Besides coins and antiquities, it consists of about 900 volumes, a large number of which are state papers of the highest value, including diplomatic correspondence between England and the Continental states from the reign of Edward III. to that of James I. The library was placed in 1730 in Ashburnham House, Westminster, where a fire partially destroyed some of the volumes. Among the MSS. that suffered severely on this occasion was that of the Old English poem of Beowulf (q. v.). As the work had not then been printed, and no other MS. existed, it is singular to reflect that the most ancient, the most poetic, and the most picturesque product of the early Teutonic muse, was within an ace of absolutely vanishing from human knowledge. The Cottonian Library

was removed in 1757 to the British Museum. See Edwards' Memoirs of Libraries.

Cotton-Seed Oil, a secondary product of the cultivation of cotton, of considerable value, is found in the oil obtained by expression from the seeds. The seeds are treated in the same manner as linseed, and yield a brownish fluid oil used for general purposes. The oil-cake of cotton-seed is a valuable cattle-feeding substance.

Cotton-Spinning. The various industries connected with the preparation of cotton for use constitute the most extensive and important of all textile manufactures. In Great Britain, cotton is indeed the staple of the leading industry, giving direct employment to more persons than any other, and absorbing the largest amount of capital. Though it is only in recent times, and principally within the present century, that cotton has attained a preeminent position in manufacturing industries, the fibre has been utilised in India, China, and other Oriental countries from the most remote period, and the indigenous cotton of America was employed as a textile material before the discovery of that continent by European explorers. The manufacture of cotton embraces spinning, weaving, bleaching, calico printing and dyeing; but only C.-S. will be here dealt with, the others being noticed under their respective heads.

From the

The first operation in the preparation of cotton for spinning, after the fibre has been gathered, consists of ginning, or separating the fibre from the seeds which are enclosed within it. This is chiefly performed at the place of growth of the fibre, previous to packing it in bales for exportation. A variety of mechanism has been adapted for the operation, the most common being the saw-gin, in which a kind of revolving circular-saw apparatus tears the fibre away from the seed. Cotton, as imported, requires frequently to be freed from the grosser impurities mixed up with it by means of the willow, an apparatus so named from having been originally a cylindrical box or basket of plaited willows. It now consists of a box in which a series of iron spikes revolve with enormous rapidity over a gird-bottom, and in their revolution they toss about and open the cotton fibre fed into the apparatus, the impurities falling through the bottom. willow the fibre passes to the opener or scutching machine, which, in the case of clean staples, is the first apparatus through which the raw cotton passes. In this machine all the matted lumps of the cotton are teased out by means of a revolving beater, which strikes against the fibre with great violence. The impurities from the cotton fall through a gird-bottom under the beater, and the fibre is carried forward by the suction of a fan-blast. From the first opener the cotton passes to a second machine of the same nature called the spreading frame or lap machine, where, in addition to undergoing an additional opening and blowing, it is formed into a spread lap, or continuous roll of uniform breadth and thickness. The material is now ready for carding, the purpose of which is to disentangle the separate filaments, and lay them all parallel to each other. The carding engine is a complex apparatus, the principal feature of which consists of a series of cylinders revolving in opposite directions, such cylinders being covered with leather or vulcanised cloth studded with wire teeth or hooks, bent forward in the direction in which the cylinders are intended to revolve when in operation. Commonly the main cylinder of the carding engine is arched over by a series of flat top-cards or flats, which are toothed and stationary, and act against the main cylinder revolving under them. For fine C.-S. the fibre is passed through two such engines :-Ist, the breaker card, which delivers the material in a broad thin fleece; and 2d, the finisher card, from which the cotton issues in a loose riband or sliver, ready for the drawing frame. Instead of the finisher card, a combing machine is sometimes used for the finer qualities of yarn, by which the short fibres are combed out, and the long fibres arranged in a beautiful uniform sliver. Still further to render the fibres parallel with each other, and to produce a uniformity in the sliver, the material next passes to the drawing frame. This apparatus consists of three pairs of rollers, placed behind each other, and caused to rotate at different rates of rapidity, so that the material fed into the first pair, when caught by the more rapidly moving second pair, is drawn out lengthwise in proportion to the different rate of motion. Between the second and the third pair the same difference holds, and generally the drawing frame is so arranged that six slivers fed together into the first pair are passed

out of the third elongated six times, and having consequently the thickness of one of the original slivers. The slivers are repeatedly subjected to this operation, till by doubling and drawing, the sliver, as delivered by the carding engine, is drawn out to one thousand times its original length. The drawn sliver is next passed to the slubbing frame, where it is further drawn out, receives a slight twist, sufficient to hold it together as a thin, loose rope, and is wound on a bobbin. In the roving frame the coils from two bobbins of slubbing are united, drawn out to still greater tenuity, twisted, and wound on a bobbin, and at this point the fibre is ready for the final operation of spinning. For this operation two kinds of machine are employed :-(1) The throstle, in which the roving is drawn out to a sufficient tenuity, twisted, and wound on bobbins in a series of continuous operations; and (2) the mule, in which a certain length of roving is first drawn out, which portion is then twisted and wound on cops. When two strands of yarn are subsequently twisted together, the product is called doubled yarn or thread.

The variety, complexity, and ingenuity of the numerous machines employed in C.-S. would form a sufficient subject for many volumes. The three men to whom C.-S. owes its greatest advance were Arkwright, Hargreaves, and Crompton (q. v.). Very full practical details of this most important art will be found in Mr Evan Leigh's Science of Modern C.-S. (2d ed. Manchester, 1873).

The degree of fineness of cotton yarn is estimated by the number of hanks, each measuring 840 yards, which will weigh I lb. Thus a hank of 40's means a hank which weighs onefortieth part of 1 lb. Commercial numbers range from 6s to 250's, but as high as 10,000's has been spun, and Mr T. Houldsworth of Manchester exhibited in the Great Exhibition of 1851 spun yarn of various degrees of fineness to 2150's, and a fragment of muslin woven of 5408's.

The following table contains a summary of cotton factories, as exhibited in a parliamentary return, dated August 1875:

Cott'us, a genus of Teleostean fishes, including the species known as Bullheads' (q. v.), some of which are marine, whilst

others inhabit fresh water. They belong to the family Triglide or Gurnards, and are remarkable for the large size of the head, which is provided with formidable-looking spines and processes. The sea-scorpion (C. scorpius) and the father-lasher (C. bubalis) are common British species. They can live out of water for considerable periods. Their average size is from 6 to IO inches.

Cotur'nix. See QUAIL.

Cotyle'don (Gr. 'cup or hollow-shaped '), a part of the embryo of Plants (q. v.); also a genus of shrubs and herbaceous plants belonging to the natural order Crassulaceæ. C. umbilicus, the navelwort, pennywort, or pennypies, is a common plant in the W. of England, and in some parts of Wales. Several species, especially those of the Cape of Good Hope (e.g., C. orbiculata), are frequently cultivated. C. lutea is

Two Cotyledons of a Bean.

a native of Portugal, but very doubtfully of Britain.

constitutional derangement. When it depends on acute or subacute inflammation, it is accompanied with febrile symptoms, as in bronchitis, pneumonia, and frequently in phthisis; but when chronic, or depending on local irritation only, there may be no pyrexia. By stethoscopic and other means of diagnosis, the nature of the disease, the seat thereof, and the extent to which the lungs are implicated, can always be determined. C., in, all cases, is an effort of nature to relieve itself from a source of irritation.

Coulomb', Charles Augustin de, a well-known French physicist, was born at Angoulême, June 24, 1736. His fame rests upon his experimental researches in electricity and magnetism, especially his discovery of the law of the inverse square. (See TORSION BALANCE.) Through the influence of the projectors of a canal in Bretagne, C. was imprisoned for a time on account of his unfavourable report of the scheme. In 1786 he became a

MANT.

Couch-Grass, Wheat-Grass, Dog-Grass, Quickens, Squitch, or Quitch, the two latter names being also given to other grasses (Triticum repens), a perennial species of grass, belonging to the same genus as wheat, common in Europe and N. America. Being from its long, spreading roots difficult to be eradicated, it is a troublesome weed in cultivated grounds. C. is useful in binding sandy soils together, but though the roots are sweet and mucilaginous, and used in Naples for feeding horses, and even for making into bread in | times of scarcity, and for brewing a domestic beer valued as a diuretic and diaphoretic, the foliage is not greatly esteemed as a feeding materiál. Its leaves, probably owing to a volatile oil, have a pungent flavour, and act upon dogs, at least, as a powerful emetic. T. repens, owing to its changeableness in different soils and localities, has been split up by some botanists into a number of very doubtfully distinct species."

Couch'ing. See CATARACT.

Cou'cy, Renaud, Castell'an of, a trouvère of the N. of France, of whose life nothing more is definitely known than that he lived about the 12th c., and was a crusader, probably with Richard Coeur-de-Lion and Philippe Auguste. He is known for his extremely passionate and beautiful love-poems or Chansons, an admirable edition of which was published by Michel, Paris, in 1830.

Coue'pia, a genus of plants of the natural order Chrysobalanacea, comprising about a dozen species, all natives of S. America. The fruits of many of them are eaten-e.g., that of C. Chrysocalyx, planted near the villages of the Amazonian Indians. The Indians use the bark of C. Guianensis in the manufacture of pottery.

Cou'gar. See PUMA.

Cough'ing is a symptom of irritation in the respiratory passages, or in the respiratory organs themselves. This irritation may depend upon a variety of causes, and it is a symptom of several diseases entirely distinct from each other. C. may be spasmodic, depending on a state of nervous irritability, without any obvious exciting cause; or it may be occasioned by pressure on the lungs from obesity, enlargement of the liver and spleen, the gravid uterus, abdominal tumours, and the like. C. may also be caused by the inhalation of irritant matters, brought into contact with the fauces, trachea, or bronchial tubes. Severe and prolonged C., not unfrequently simulating the symptoms of organic disease of the lungs, is often caused by enlargement and elongation of the uvula, the result of inflammation of that organ, the irritation being caused by the uvula tickling the adjacent parts. C. may also depend upon the absence of the normal amount of mucous secretion in the respiratory passages, and when such is the case, it is not followed by expectoration; or it may be caused by an excess of mucous secretion, as in ordinary catarrh and bronchitis. C. is also a symptom of such diseases of the lungs as pneumonia and phthisis; and of such local affections as croup, diphtheria, and whooping-cough. The C. of asthma is usually accompanied with distressing dyspnoea. many diseases C. is a secondary symptom, owing to the respiratory organs being affected in connection with the general 109

In

C. died August 23, 1806. His principal literary productions are his memoirs Sur les Aiguilles Aimantées (1779), Sur la Statique des Voûtes (1779), and Sur la Chaleur (1804).

Cou'marine is a crystalline substance contained in the Tonka bean (Dypteryx odorata), in woodruff, and in several other plants. It may be obtained by extracting Tonka beans with boiling alcohol, and evaporating the solution till it crystallises. C. has a pleasant aromatic odour; its taste is burning. When heated it melts, and may be volatilised unchanged. C. has been prepared artificially. Its .composition is represented by the formula C9H6O2.

Coun'cil, in the New Testament, signifies the Jewish Sanhedrim (q. v.). drim (q. v.). The clergy of a city or district, presided over by one of their own number as moderator, formed a consistorial court or C. of one Church. Of this nature was the meeting of the Church at Jerusalem recorded Acts xv., which is sometimes called the first Christian C. In the 3d c. the moderator was developed into a Bishop (q. v.), who presided over the councils of the presbyters of his diocese. An ecclesiastical C. proper, however, is a meeting of delegates from a number of confederate Churches. The custom of holding such councils began among the Greeks, who were accustomed to hold similar assemblies (synods) in connection with a political confederation of cities; and from them it was extended throughout the whole Church, the meeting receiving in the West the Latin name of C. At first the councils were merely provincial, and had very limited powers; the bishops and presbyters came as the representatives of their churches, and were presided over by a Metropolitan (q. v.). The earliest councils of this kind of which there is authentic notice were those which met concerning the Montanists, about 170. These councils having thus come to be regarded as the highest ecclesiastical tribunal in the several provinces, when the Church was established and consolidated under Constantine, it was easy to extend the idea to the whole Roman Empire, and the Emperor summoned: a general or Ecumenical C. (q. v.) to discuss matters affecting the whole Church or the general principles of Christianity. The authority of convening general councils in the East was exercised by the Emperors; the Popes afterwards exercised the same power in the West.

1

The four general councils recognised by all Churches are those of Nicea (325), of Constantinople (381), of Ephesus (431), and of Chalcedon (451). The chief subject discussed at these four The first conwas the doctrine regarding the person of Christ. demned Arius (q. v.), who denied the proper divinity of Christ, and decreed his true Godhead. The second condemned Apollinaris (q. v.), who gave to Christ only an incomplete human nature, and decreed his perfect manhood. The third condemned Nestorius (q. v.), who separated Christ's two natures, and decreed that he was God and man indivisibly. The fourth condemned Eutyches (q. v.), who confounded Christ's two natures, and decreed that he was God and man distinctly. The Greek Church recognises other three in addition to the above: II. Constantinople (553), at which Origen was condemned; III. Constantinople (680), at which the Monothelites (q. v.) were condemned; II. Nicea (787), at which image-worship was estab'lished. The Church of Rome recognises, in addition to these seven, other eleven: IV. Constantinople (869); I. Lateran (1122), II. (1139), III. (1179), IV. (1215), at which Pope Innocent III. forbade the formation of new orders of monks; I. 265

Lyons (1245), at which Innocent IV, declared Friedrich II. unworthy of the imperial throne of Germany; II. Lyons (1274), remarkable for the new regulations it enacted for the election of the Popes, including the shutting up of the cardinals in conclave; Vienne (1311), at which the Beghards and Beguines (q. v.) were condemned and the Knights-Templar suppressed; Florence (1439), which was chiefly occupied in settling the disputes between the Greeks and Latins; V. Lateran (1512), called by Pope Julius II. in opposition to that of Pisa; Trent (1545), convened to settle the controversies with the Protestants. The French divines, however, substitute for the Councils of Lyons, Florence, and V. Lateran, those of Pisa (1409), by which the two contending Popes were excommunicated; Constance (1414), at which the discord between the three contending Popes was extinguished; and Basel (1431), which discussed the union of the Greeks and Latins, and the reformation of the Church.

Besides these general councils, called by the Emperors and the Popes, many local councils were held, at which the bishops freely expressed their opinion, and often gave decisions opposed to those of the Popes; for it was long till the Church of the West especially could be brought to regard the decisions of the Roman Bishop as final. Of these local councils the chief are: Constantinople (754), called by Constantine (son of Leo the Isaurian) against image-worship; Frankfurt (794), called by Charlemagne against image-worship; Constantinople (842), which restored image-worship; Constantinople (861), called by some of the Greeks a general C.; Constantinople (879), which confirmed image-worship, and is held by some of the Greeks to be the eighth general C.; Placentia and Clermont (both 1095), at which Urban II. recommended the first crusade; Pisa and Milan (1511), called by Louis XII. of France to oppose Pope Julius II. The most important Protestant councils have been the Synod of Dort (q. v.) in 1618, which condemned Arminianism, and the Westminster Assembly, which met in 1643 to aid the English Parliament in settling the government, worship, and doctrines of the Church of England. See Neander's and Mosheim's Kirchengeschichte, Whately's Kingdom of Christ, Gieseler's Compendium of Eccl. Hist., Guericke's Manual of Church Hist., Hefele's and Walch's Geschichten der Kirchenversamml., and Walcot's Sacred Archæology.

Council, Privy. See PRIVY COUNCIL.
Council, Town. See Town Council.

Council of War, is a conference during war of general officers, or of the superior officers of a detachment, to advise with the commander. The British military code leaves the taking of this advice to the discretion of a commander; but the French code makes special provision for it, especially as regards the defence of a garrison. In the navy, flag-officers only are considered qualified to take part in a C. of W.; but officers of a lower rank

are sometimes invited.

Coun'sel. See BARRISTER, Advocate.

Count, or County (Lat. comes, Fr. comte), formerly an official, but now merely an honorary title, used on the Continent, and corresponding to the English Earl (q. v.) and the German Graf (q. v.). On the breaking up of the Roman Empire, the title Comes (q. v.) was retained in the new European kingdom, and under Charlemagne was applied both to military and civil officials. In France, where the C. of the palace ranked next to the mayor of the palace, the various Counts or governors of provinces were enabled, as the Karoling dynasty grew weaker, to acquire jurisdictions independent of the crown, and to make their titles, which they took from their respective possessions, hereditary. Thus arose the powerful Counts of Champagne and Toulouse, independent sovereigns, who appointed Counts under them, who are known as Counts-palatine. After the 12th c. the power of the French Counts decreased, the division of the country into counties was destroyed, and since the French Revolution C. has been merely an honorary title. In England, the Norman successors to the possessions of the English Earls were, for a time, known as Counts. Hence the wife of an Earl is still called a Countess. C.-palatine was, in England, applied to the noble or churchman (such as the Earl of Chester and the Bishop of Durham) who exercised royal prerogatives within his county.

Count and Reck'oning is the name given in Scotch law to a form of process by which one party may compel another to account with him judicially, and to pay the balance which may be found due. In these actions, a remit is usually made to an accountant. See ACCOUNTANT; ACCOUNTANT, CHARTERED. Coun'ter-Approach', in defensive military engineering, a trench leading towards the besiegers from the covered way of the fortified place, and frequently ending in a small redoubt or battery. Its object is to get a point from which to enfilade the trenches of the enemy, and thus keep the fighting farther away from the besieged fortress.

Counter-Changed, in heraldry, describes a field divided in such a manner that it is tinctured in part with metal, in part with colour, the charges being reciprocally of the same colour and metal.

Coun'terfeit. See COINING.

Coun'terforts, in fortification, are buttresses of brick or stone, built against the revêtment wall, to resist the outward pressure of the rampart, or the natural ground on the opposite side of the ditch. Their depth is usually equal to the mean thickness of the revêtment, and they are placed about 18 feet apart.

Coun'terguards, in fortification, are small outworks, with parapets and ditches, occasionally constructed to cover the bastions and ravelins of a fortress. They run parallel to the faces of these interior works, and their crest is 3 or 4 feet lower than theirs, so as not to obstruct the defence, when the enemy has made a lodgment on the counterguard. The rear parapet never exceeds 18 feet, that there may not be space to establish a battery there when a lodgment has been made.

Counter-Irr'itants are medicinal agents having the property of irritating that part of the body to which they are applied, and of thereby exerting a curative influence on diseased parts or organs. They are chiefly used to modify the vascularity and nutrition of diseased parts, and to control congestion and inflammation, on the hypothesis that the production of artificial irritation on a sound part of the body affords relief to a part or organ previously diseased. Such agents have been employed by physicians from the earliest times. They are divided into three classes, viz., rubefacients, epispastics, and caustics or escharotics. The first class reddens the integument by dilating its capillary vessels; the second class disturbs the arrangement of its organic constituents, and consists of blistering agents, which cause an elevation of the epidermis with a secretion of serum beneath it, and those which produce a pustular eruption; the third class destroys the organisation of the tissues to which they are applied. The more prominent effects of C.-I. are purely mechanical, an artificial inflammation being produced which, when duly regulated, palliates or cures those which arise primarily or idiopathically, the blood being withdrawn from the congested or inflamed part, and accumulated in that to which the irritant is applied. C.-I. are applicable chiefly to cases of pain, congestion, or inflammation, the cause of which is confined chiefly to the affected parts, and they have but little influence upon the local developments of idiopathic general diseases, as fevers or dyscrasia. They are of advantage at the early stage of diseases, when there is local determination of blood, but not during the stage of febrile action. When the intensity of the febrile action has subsided, as indicated by the pulse being softer and less frequent, the appropriate time has arrived for the application of C.-I. to obviate the effects of inflammation, and the less the extent of the disease the more amenable it is to this mode of treatment. As a general rule, persons of a nervous and irritable temperament, as delicate females and young children, are not benefited by C.-I. unless applied mildly and with much caution; for the delicacy and fineness of the skin renders them intolerant of pain, and an injudicious application may result in general nervous derangement, inflammation, and even gangrene of the parts on which they act. None but the milder forms of cutaneous irritants should be applied to persons who have a fine and delicate skin and great nervous susceptibility, more especially to infants and young children. Some modern physicians deny the efficacy of medicinal C.-I. Professor Hebra of Vienna maintains that all such measures are irrational, useless, and cruel, and in this opinion he was followed by the late Dr Anstie. The value of C.-I., judiciously applied, is supported, however, by the