This lady died in 1796, and C. being attacked by dropsy, expired at Dereham, Norfolk, April 25, 1800. In English poetry C. was leader of a reaction against the brilliant, artificial school of Pope. He had neither deep passion nor imagination, but has won and kept his place by his purity of sentiment, his graceful and truthful handling of simple themes, his lucid and vigorous style, and especially by his earnest religious vein. Not excepting Milton, he is our truest religious poet. The Task is his greatest work; Conversation perhaps his cleverest. In the one he shows exquisite feeling; in the other, polished wit. John Gilpin has always been and must ever remain popular; while his Letters, with their charming naïveté and sparkling clearness, display an acute and cultured intellect, and entitle him to be considered one of the most charming letterwriters in the English language. Southey has edited C.'s works in 15 vols. The best Life is The best Life is that by Southey (1835). The Globe edition (Macmillan & Co., 1870) gives an account of the preceding literature on the poet. Cowplant (Gymnema lactiferum), a native plant of Ceylon, of the natural order Asclepiadacea, gets its name from a belief that its juice supplied the place of milk to the natives; but in reality the juice is only like milk, not used as a substitute for it (Emerson Tennant). Cow'ry (Cypræa), a genus of Gasteropodous mollusca, forming the type of the family Cypræida, in which the shell is convolute and enamelled; the spire is concealed; the shell-aperture narrow, and channelled at either end. The outer lip is thick and inflected in old shells. The foot is broad, and the mantle lobes meet over the back of the shell. The shells form typical examples of the kind of shells to which the Cowry-Cypria Stobida. name Porcellanous or 'Porcelain' is applied. A few species are British, but most are tropical. The money-C. (C. moneta) is so named from its being used as a substitute for coins in many parts of Asia and Africa. It is of yellowish colour, and averages an inch in length. In Bengal one C. of a farthing in value. Other species are the C. tigris, C. Scottiis, C. argus, C. histrio, C. undata, C. Madagascariensis, C. Europea, &c. The genus Ovulum is included in this family. Cow'slip (Primula veris), a common plant in many parts of England, though rarer in Scotland, belonging to the natural order Primulacea. The flowers are believed to possess sedative and diaphoretic properties, and are therefore sometimes used as añ anodyne and antispasmodic, and when fermented as C.-wine, employed to produce sleep. The Virginian C. (Dodecatheon Meadia), a member of the same order, is cultivated in our gardens for the beauty of its flowers, which is indeed the main recommendation of its genus. The same name is sometimes applied to Mertensea or Pulmonaria virginica. The Jerusalem C. is Pulmonaria officinalis. Cow-Tree, a name applied to various trees, the bland milky juice of which is used instead of milk. For instance, the Arbol de Leche, Palo de Vaca, of Caraccas and other parts of S. America, is Brosimum Galactodendron (or Galactodendron utile), one of the natural order Arctocarpacea. The name is also applied to the Hya-hya (Taberna montana utilis), one of the Apocynacea, as well as to Ficus Saussureana and other species of figs, and to Clusia Galactodendron. The milk' of Brosimum Galactodendron is said to be of as good quality as that from the cow. The tree forms large forests on the sea-coast of Venezuela. The milk is obtained by making incisions in the trunk, and is perfectly wholesome and very nourishing, having an agreeable taste like cream, with a balsamic odour. Its composition is different from that of animal milk, containing, as it does, wax and fibrin, a little sugar, a salt of magnesia, and water. After a few days' exposure to the air it sours and putrifies. It contains upwards of 30 per cent. of the resinous substance called Galactin. Cow-Wheat (Melampyrum), a genus of plants of the order Scrophulariaceae, of which several are common in English woods, pastures, cornfields, &c. They get their name from a belief that they fatten cattle, and give a yellow tinge to butter made from the milk of cattle fed on pastures in which they abound. There are four British species. The generic name refers to an ancient belief that bread made from flour mixed with the ground seeds of C. had a tendency to become black. 110 | Coxe, William, a heavy but painstaking historical writer, was born in London, March 7, 1747; became fellow of King's College, Cambridge, 1768, curate of Denham, near Uxbridge, 1771, rector of Bemerton, 1788, and archdeacon of Wilts, 1805. He died June 8, 1828. His best known works are his History of the House of Austria (3 vols. Lond. 1807), and Memoirs of John Duke of Marlborough (3 vols. 1817–19). He also wrote Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole and Memoirs of the Pelham Administration. Coy'pu, or Nu'tria (Myopotamus C.), a genus of Rodentia, included in the Beaver family, Castoride, and largely hunted for its fur. It inhabits burrows made in the banks of rivers in Chili and elsewhere in S. America. The hind-feet are webbed, the tail being long and rounded, scaly, and provided with scattered feet. The muzzle is pointed and the ears small. The fur is hairs. It averages the size of the beaver-that is, from 2 to 3 of a general yellowish tint, and known by the name 'Racoondah.' In some years 1,000,000 of C. skins have been imported into Britain from S. America. Land Crab. Crab (Old Eng. crabba, Sansk. grabh, 'to seize or grab'). The name applied popularly as well as scientifically to many genera of Crustacea (q. v.), included in the order Decapoda (q. v.) ('ten-limbed') of that class, and for the most part in the section Brachyura. In the true crabs, represented thus by the edible C. or 'partan' (C. pagurus), and the smaller or shore-C. (C. manas), the abdomen is rudimentary, and is tucked up under the broadened-out body, which consists of the cephalothorax, or united head and chest segments. The gills are contained within special cavities existing in the sides of the body. The nervous system in the crabs consists of a single large ganglion, placed ventrally, or on the floor of the body, and from which nerves radiate throughout the body. During their development, crabs undergo a metamorphosis, the first stage being free-swimming, possessing a tail, and known as Zoea. and known as Zoea. The second stage, named Megalopa, is also tailed; whilst after several moults the Megalopa loses its tail and assumes the form of the perfect C. The antennæ are never of great length, and the front pair of legs form chele or nipping-claws. The eggs are attached to the rudimentary tail of the female. The sub-order Brachyura, including the true crabs, are represented by the families Cancerida (edible and other crabs, belong&c.), Maiada, or Spider Crabs (q. v.), and Oxystomide (genera ing to the genera Cancer, Ethra, Xantho, Perimela, Galene, Gecarcinide, or land-crabs, &c.) contains the representative Dorippe, &c.). Ocypodidae (genera Pinno-theres, sea-crabs, and groups of crabs. The sub-order Anomura, in which the abdomen is developed to a greater or less extent, but not so perfectly as in the Macrura, includes the well-known Hermit or Soldier Crabs (q. v.), Paguride, the Hippide, the Porcellanidæ, or porcelain crabs, the Dromiida, Homolide, and other groups. The abdomen in Anomura, whatever its development, does not bear The three front pairs of feet are well developed, and the first the feet seen in the Macrura (lobsters, shrimps, prawns, &c.). claws are generally chelete. See also CRUSTACEA, DECAPoda, and articles (such as PEA-CRABS, SPIDER-CRABS, &c.) descriptive of the various kinds of these crustaceans. Crab-Apple, Pyrus malus; Queensland C.-A., Petalostigma quadrilocularis; Siberian C.-A., Pyrus baccata and P. prunifolia. Crabbe, George, an English poet, was born at Aldborough, Suffolk, December 24, 1754. His father, a collector of saltduties, encouraged his early poetic proclivities, and strove to procure him a good education. When fourteen years of age C. was apprenticed to a surgeon, but finding the profession distasteful, abandoned it and went to seek his fortune as an author in London. At the end of a year, being in danger of imprisonment for debt, he wrote asking help from Burke, who admitted C. into his friendship, enabled him to issue his poem, The Library (1781), and persuaded him to enter the Church. After being curate of Aldborough, C. received two livings in Dorsetshire, and removed in 1785 to Strathern Parsonage, where he remained until 1813. He spent the rest of his life at Trowbridge, Wilt shire, published his Tales of the Hall in 1819, and died February 8, 1832. C.'s poetry describes commonplace themes with intense and sometimes painful realism. His characters belong to the humblest ranks-smugglers, poachers, paupers, vagrants-whose natures are analysed with startling, unsparing accuracy. He Hazlitt said that C. depicts scenes with tedious minuteness. described the interior of a cottage 'like a person sent there to distrain for rent.' C. has been called a Pope in worsted stockings. He has Pope's correctness without his nimble wit, fancy, and glittering delicacies of language. As he grew older, his verse became more passionate, touching, and forcible; it forms a link between the school of Pope and the school of Wordsworth. C.'s principal works are The Library, The Village, The Borough, Tales in Verse, Tales of the Hall, Sir Eustace Grey, The Hall of Justice. See Life of C. (1838) by his son. The Crab'eth, Dirk and Wouter, famous masters in the art of glass-painting, were brothers, and flourished during the latter half of the 16th c. They appear to have been born at Gouda, in S. Holland. Wouter died in 1581, and Dirk in 1601. most splendid examples of their skill are the painted windows in St Janskirche, at Gouda, of which seven were executed by Dirk and the remaining four by Wouter. Other churches in Belgium and France possess excellent examples of their art. Although friends, these brothers were so jealous of their reputation, that each concealed from the other the secret processes by which they achieved their effects. These, however, appear to have been costly, for the artists were often obliged, for want of material, to work as ordinary glaziers. Cracked Heels, in veterinary medicine, is a very troublesome condition in horses, the chief symptoms of which are swelling and inflammation of the lower parts of the legs and hoofs, the cracking and ulceration of the skin, and the presence of a foul-smelling and often bloody discharge. The direct causes of the affection are traceable to careless grooming, damp, prolonged exposure to wet, together with careless feeding. The treatment consists in the administration, of aperients, in poulticing the sores, and latterly in using astringent lotions. Cracovienne", a Polish national dance, taking its name from Cracow, the ancient capital of Poland. It is in 2-time, and is accompanied by singing. Cra'cow (Pol. Krakov, Ger. Krakan), capital of a circle in the crown-land of Galicia, on the Vistula, about 70 miles N. E. of Vienna by rail. It contains forty-six churches, four public squares, a castle called the Königsburg, and a Gothic cathedral, with the tombs of the Polish kings. The University of C., founded in 1364, and for a time a famous seat of learning, was, destroyed by the influence of the Jesuits, but was re-opened in 1817. It has a valuable library, a botanic garden, and a museum. C. has a theological seminary, a normal school, two gymnasia, a polytechnic school, a literary and musical association, and the national theatre. The streets are generally dark and narrow, but the thoroughfares in the suburbs-of which there are fourteen—are much wider and cleaner. The old walls have been converted into a promenade. There are no important manufactures, and the trade, formerly very extensive, became very insignificant, till a transit trade with Russia, Prussia, and Austria, carried on by the Jews, revived while C. was a republic. The railway, which now connects the city with Vienna, Berlin, Warsaw, and Lemberg, has increased trade. Since C. came into the possession of Austria it has been surrounded by extensive and formidable fortifications. Jews form about a fourth of the population, which was in 1870, 49,835. C. was founded about 760 by Krak, Duke of Poland, whence its name; was the capital of Poland from 1320 to 1609, and in it the monarchs were crowned until 1764. It was taken by Karl XII. of Sweden in 1702, by the Russians in 1768, was added to Austria in 1795, formed into a republic in 1815, and finally united to Austria in 1846. Craft, in naval language, is a term applied to any collection of decked vessels. It is a general designation for barges, lighters, hoys, and other keels employed in loading and unloading large ships. In the royal navy, cutters, schooners, gunboats, and other vessels commanded by lieutenants, are styled small C. | Crag, a local name given to certain Pliocene deposits in Norfolk and Suffolk, consisting of shelly sands and gravels. The Norwich or mammaliferous C. is used to fertilise soils which are poor in lime. See PLIOCENE. Craig-and-Tail, in geology, signifies a hill of peculiar conformation, with a bold precipitous cliff or escarpment on one side, and drawn out, as it were, on the opposite side into a gently sloping declivity. Many of these have been formed through the action of strong currents of water, or even of ice, the tail gradually collecting on the sheltered side. The majority, however, would appear to be due rather to the direction of the dip of the beds, whose outcrop forms the escarpment. In the neighbourhood of Edinburgh there are several good examples of craigs-and-tails-the Castle Rock and North Berwick Law being good examples of the first kind, and Calton Hill, Salisbury Crags, Corstorphine Hill, and the Binnie Craig near Uphall, of the second. Craig, John, a Scottish Reformer, was born in Scotland in 1512. Trained to be a Dominican friar, he was intrusted with the education of the novices of that order at Boulogne, when the reading of Calvin's Institutes converted him to Protestantism. Openly avowing his opinions, he was condemned to be burnt by the Inquisition, and was only saved by the riots consequent on the death of Pope Paul IV., in the course of which the prisons at Boulogne were thrown open. After many narrow escapes on the Continent, C. returned to Scotland, and became Knox's colleague in the parish church of Edinburgh. Even in that time and country he was disHe refused tinguished for boldness of speech and action. to proclaim the banns between Queen Mary and Bothwell, and when he was made minister to James VI., never refrained from saying to the anointed pedant' what he thought of his conduct. He aided in drawing up the Second Book of Discipline, and wrote the National Covenant, signed by the King in 1580. C. died December 4, 1600.-Thomas C., a Scotch advocate, was born at Edinburgh about 1548, educated at St Andrews and Paris, filled various posts of distinction, including those of Justice-depute to Archibald Earl of Argyle, Justice-general of Scotland, and advocate for the Church of Scotland. He was at the same time a favourite of James VI., who offered him the honour of knighthood, which, however, he declined. C. is best known for his Jus Feudale. He also wrote respectable verses, and was an ardent champion of the claims of Scotland to be independent of England. T. C. died at Edinburgh, 26th February 1608. See Tytler's Life of C. (Edinb. 1823). Craik, George Lillie, an English author, was born in Fifeshire in 1798. Educated at St Andrew's University for the Church, he betook himself at an early age to London and to literature. Among the works he produced at this period of his life were his Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties, his History of British Commerce, and, above all, his History of Literature and Learning in England from the Norman Conquest to the Present Time (1844). He also edited the Pictorial History of England, and contributed to the Penny Cyclopædia. In 1849, C. was appointed Professor of History and English Literature in Queen's College, Belfast, and among his writings subsequent to that appointment are his English of Shakespeare and Outlines of the History of the English Language, which have both been very C. died June 25, 1866. He was a careful recorder of popular. C. died June 25, 1866. His History of English Literature facts and a suggestive writer. is in particular a collection of conscientious and sound criticisms. Crail, a seaport in Fifeshire, 10 miles S.E. of St Andrews. Herring-fishing, once carried on here to a great extent, but which declined from the herring deserting the coast, has of late years much revived, and would increase were the harbour improved. C. unites with St Andrews, E. and W. Anstruther, Cupar, Kilrenny, and Pittenweem in returning one member to Parliament. Pop. (1871) 1126. The town was of note at an early period, and still possesses some vestiges of an old castle, once a royal residence, and of a priory college. From the square tower of the ancient parish church springs the broach, an architectural feature scarcely found in Scotland out of Fifeshire. Archbishop Sharp was at one time minister of C. Crake (Crex), a genus of Grallatorial or Wading birds, beIn the C. the bill longing to the family Rallide or Rails. is thick and shorter than the head. The wings possess a small is of a reddish-brown colour, marked with black or dark-brown. The tail is short and pointed. It is a migratory bird, being found in Britain only in summer, and inhabits cornfields and marshy lands, its harsh cry of crek, crek, being very familiar. It winters in S. Europe, N. Africa, and Asia. An analogous species is the Carolina rail (C. Carolina) of N. America, which inhabits marshes, and migrates northwards from the Gulf of Mexico in summer. In size and colour it resembles the corncrake, its plumage being streaked with white. Crambe, a genus of plants of the natural order Crucifera (q. v.), of which one, C. maritima, is well known as SeaKale (q. v.), found wild on our coasts, and also cultivated in gardens for use. When blanched as a potherb, it is eaten in the same way as asparagus. C. tartarica is the Tartar kenyes or Tartarian bread. It is not cultivated, but the root is eaten, either boiled or sliced, with oil, vinegar, and salt, in the countries of which it is a native. See Loudon's Encyclopædia of Plants, P. 557. N. America. It is largely used in tarts, preserves, &c. Before the Lincolnshire bogs were drained, the berries were sold by the cartload in Norwich market. In the market of Langton, in Cumberland, as much as £20 to £30 worth of the fruit was sold for five or six weeks in succession, as long as the season lasted. In Sweden, silver plate is boiled in them, that the acid in the fruit may clean it. O. macrocarpus is the large-fruited or American C., common in sandy soils from Canada to Virginia. Large quanbe cultivated to advantage both in Europe and America, low It can tities are used in the country and exported to Britain. coarse meadows planted with it yielding an average crop of 80 to 100 bushels of berries per acre. A 'wine' is made from the C. in Siberia, and a beverage made from it is sold in St Petersburg. erythrocarpon) is a small shrub, a native of the Virginian and O. erecta (Vaccinum berry (Vaccinium vitis idea) is sold in Aberdeen and other places Carolinian mountains, producing a fine fruit. The red whortle under the name of 'cranberries.' The so-called Tasmanian C. is Astroloma humifusum, a shrub belonging to the natural order Epacridacea. The name is also given to Styphelia adscendens, a small Australian shrub of the same order, and in New South Wales to another Epacridaceous shrub, Lissanthe sapida, which produces red acid berries. The name is apparently derived from the idea that the berries are eaten by cranes. Cramps are a variety of spasms or hypercenisis, and are caused by the contraction or tension of a voluntary or involuntary muscular structure, independently of volition, and accompanied with pain. They are called symptomatic when they depend upon disease in other parts of the body than in the muscular tissues affected, as in affections of the brain and spinal marrow; and idiopathic when the disturbance is functional, depending on transient lesion of the nerves and their sheaths, or on hyper-miles S.W. of Canterbury, and the principal place in the Weald. æmia with oedema of the neurilemma. C. are described as tonic when the muscular contraction is continuous, and as clonic when intermittent. They are caused (1) By irritation at or near the seat of morbid action, such as from sudden change of temperature in bathing, exposure to cold, over-exertion of the muscles, or from bringing muscles long disused into action; (2) By irritation of the nerves supplying the affected muscles; (3) By irritation or lesion of the spinal marrow at or near the origin of the nerves supplying the muscles; (4) By lesion of parts of the brain; (5) By irritation of the digestive viscera, the generative and urinary organs, the action being transmitted to the external muscles; (6) By irritation of any of the senses, transmitted to their nervous centres, and thence reflected on parts connected with them. C. forms a prominent symptom in many diseases of infancy, in diarrhoea, dysentery, and especially in Asiatic cholera. They also occur during and after convalescence from certain acute and chronic disorders, as typhus, enteric and malarious fevers, Bright's disease of the kidneys, epidemic diphtheritis, &c. C. are relieved by friction combined with emollient, stimulant, or opietic liniments. See articles on SPASMS, CONVULSIONS, TETANUS. Cran'ach or Kron'ach (originally Sunder or Sünder), Lukas, a famous German painter, born at Kronach, near Bamberg (Bavaria), in 1472, was appointed court-painter to Friedrich the Wise of Saxony in 1504, and was employed later by the House of Brandenburg and other great families. His versatility was shown by his buying an apothecary's business at Wittenberg, where he became Burgomaster, and afterwards engaging in the book and paper trade. C. allied himself to the cause of the Reformation, and painted with affectionate conscientiousness the portraits of his friends Luther and Melancthon. He died, 16th October 1553, at Weimar. Of his numerous works, which nearly all remain in Germany, the principal are altarpieces. His designs were Gothic, wanting in unity of idea and effect, and in his historical pictures it was his custom to introduce his own portrait, and those of his family and acquaintances. For colour, however, power of characterisation, and laborious execution, C. was one of the greatest artists of his time, though Dürer and Holbein were among his contemporaries. His chief work is the Crucifixion in Weimar church. His engravings on wood and copper are much sought after by amateurs. Lukas, known as 'the Younger C.,' an excellent colourist and famous portrait-painter, died Burgomaster of Wittenberg in 1586. See Schuchardt's Lukas C.'s des Aeltern Leben und Werke (2 vols. Leips. 1851). His son, Cranberry (Oxycoccus), a genus of plants of the natural order Vacciniacea, consisting of small, slender, or creeping evergreen shrubs. There are three species. O. palustris, common C., is frequent in peaty bogs and marshy ground of Britain, as well as in similar or mountainous localities in Europe, Siberia, and Cran'brook, a small town in Kentshire, on the Crane, 28 Flemings; but that has long disappeared, and the prosperity of It was formerly a seat of the woollen trade, introduced by the C. now depends on the hop trade. Pop. (1871) 4331. Crane (Old Eng. cran, from its creaking sound), a machine for raising heavy weights. In general, a chain is fixed to the object to be lifted, carried over a pulley, and brought down to and wound upon a barrel forming part of the C. Motion is given to this barrel by means of suitably proportioned toothed wheels (spur gearing'), and the whole is set in motion either by men working handles or by a steam or other engine. Cranes vary much in shape and arrangement. In the common jib-C., the mechanism just described is attached to the lower part of a vertical C.-post, and the chain-pulley is suspended from the upper end of a long inclined post or jib, of which the lower end is connected with the framing of the C.-post, and the upper end secured by chains to the upper part of the same. In a complete travelling jib-C. the whole is placed upon a low truck running on rails, along with a small steam-engine and boiler. The jib and lifting apparatus can be turned round the post so as to lift an object situated on either side of the truck, while the upper end of the jib itself can be raised and lowered so as to suit the distance at which the object happens to be. Crane (Old Eng, cran, from the sound made by the bird), the representative of a family of birds-the Gruida-belonging to the order Grallatores, having affinities with the Ardeide or herons, and also with the Otida or bustards. The bill is strong, with sharp edges, and the nostrils lie in hollow sinuses. The legs are long and slender, with a considerable portion of the tibiæ bare, and the toes are long, except the hind one, which is also more elevated, and disherons and bitterns. The two tinguishes the family from the outer toes are connected by a small web. The cranes are powerful flight, are migratory, all large, with long necks and and fly at a great height in the air, with a steady motion. The common C. (Grus cinerea) breeds in Northern Europe and Asia, and migrates in the winter towards the tropics. Common Crane. It is of an ash-grey colour, the face and throat nearly black, and the wing-primaries black. The whooping C. (Grus Americana) is pure white in the adult state, with the tips of the wings black. both intrinsic and extrinsic. Each cranial nerve has an apparent The demoiselles (Anthropoides virgo) and the crowned C. (Bale-origin from the base of the brain, and a deep or real origin from arica pavonina), which are among the most beautiful of the family, inhabit the N. of Africa. Crane-Fly (Tipula), a genus of Dipterous insects or flies, belonging to the Nemocera, which possess antennæ of long, thread-like character. The crane-flies form types of the family Tipulide, in which the proboscis is short, and terminated by two fleshy lips enclosing bristles. The common C.-F. (T. oleracea) is the typical example. Its popular name is 'Daddy longlegs.' The larvæ, living in moist ground, do great harm by attacking the roots of grasses and cereals. Cecidomya (of which genus C. destructor, or the Hessian fly of the United States, is an example) is nearly allied to Tipula. Cranesbill. See GERANIUM. Cranganore', the most southern town on the W. coast of the district of Malabar, province of Madras, India, 80 miles S. of Calicut. The Dutch took it from the Portuguese in 1663. It was ceded to Britain by Tippoo Saib, who seized it in 1790, after it had been in the possession of the Rajah of Travancore for a year. There are native Jewish and Christian congregations here, which are said to have been founded as far back as the 4th and 5th centuries. Cran'gon. See SHRIMP. grey matter in the substance of the organ. The deep origins of pital, two parietal, frontal, two temporal, sphenoid, and ethmoid. Crank, in machinery, an arm or lever connected with a shaft, and having a rotative motion about its axis. A C. at the end of a rotating shaft is, in general, simply an arm of wrought-iron keyed upon the shaft, and having a pin called a C.-pin at its outer end. At the centre of a length of shaft the C. becomes a pair of arms (or 'throws '), joined by the C.-pin at their outer ends. In this case the C. is formed either by bending the shaft, or (more commonly) by forging a large projection upon it, and subsequently working this into the required form by suitable tools. Cran'mer, Thomas, an English statesman and ecclesiastic, was born at Aslacton, Nottinghamshire, 2d July 1489, and educated at Cambridge, where he distinguished himself in Greek and divinity, and obtained a fellowship, which was re-granted to him after the premature death of his wife in 1513. Refusing an office at Oxford which Wolsey pressed on him, he remained at Cam Cra'nia. A genus of Brachiopodous mollusca, forming the bridge and Waltham Abbey till 1529, when his suggestion of the type of the family Craniada, exemplified by many extinct and by invalidity of the papal dispensation in the matter of the King's marsome existing species. In this family, the animal is fixed to sub-riage brought him into notice. Along with other divines, he was sent to Rome to challenge the marriage as against the Scriptures, marine objects by the ventral or lower valve of the shell. The arms are fleshy, and coiled spirally. No hinge or articulating the foreign universities. Clement was of course unconvinced by the Councils, and the Fathers, and to collect similar opinions from processes exist. The upper valve is limpet-shaped. The shell may be smooth or striped or spinous. The genus C. is first tentiary.' C. also attended the Emperor at Bologna on the same his arguments, but gave C. the honorary title of 'Supreme Penirepresented in a fossil state in the Silurian rocks. C. perbusiness, wrote a book on it, and was a leading member of the sonata is a living species, while C. Ignabergensis, of the Chalk rocks, is a typical fossil form. Cambridge committee which considered it. Henry made him a royal chaplain, and after the marriage of Anne Boleyn, C. (in spite of his own second marriage) was consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury on 30th March 1533, qualifying his oath of submission to Rome by an exception of his duty to God and the laws of the country. He immediately obtained from the two Houses of Convocation a declaration that the licence of Pope Julius was null as dealing with divine, not with canonical law, and that the previous marriage with Ferdinand had been consummated; and then, under licence from the crown, opened a court at Dunstable, which Catherine refused to attend, but in which final judgment of divorce was pronounced, 23d May 1533. C. assisted in the statutory abolition of papal authority in England, but generously tried to save More and Fisher when they declined to take the oath of supremacy and to acknowledge the Statute of Succession in 1534. The issue of a second edition of the King's Primer and the revision of Tyndal's New Testament were now set on foot by C., who also vigorously supported, against Latimer and the Vicar-General Cromwell, the first Act of Dissolution of the small monasteries (1536). He even said that cathedral chapters and all clerical corporations should be suppressed. The same year he was obliged to pronounce null the marriage of his friend Anne Boleyn, whom he had regarded as a support of Reformed religion, which in the Articles and the Bishop's Book he was gradually introducing to the Church. He was, however, in 1539, defeated by the conservative party on the Six Bloody Acts.' (See ARTICLES, THE SIX.) In 1540 he had formally to dissolve Henry's marriage with Anne of Cleves, and the next year to initiate the proceedings which led to the death of Catherine Howard. As before, he generously interceded for Cromwell. In spite of the intrigues of Gardiner, Norfolk, and the Catholic party, C. managed to keep the helm of ecclesiastical affairs till Henry's death, vigorously promoting Reformed doctrine even when, perhaps, as in the King's book, he did not personally accept it. His Litany was an important contribution to the Church, to which he afterwards added the First Communion Book, the Prayer-book of 1549, and lastly, the complete Liturgy. On the accession of Edward VI., C. continued by his Homilies and the circulation of Erasmus' Paraphrase, and through the Liturgy Commission, to press on reform. The Forty-two Articles were completed by him before Edward's death. He was unwillingly forced to sign the letters patent, extorted by Northumberland's conspiracy, and altering the succession in Cra'nial Nerves. These nerves, nine in number on each side, originate in some part of the base of the brain or upper portion of the spinal cord, and pass through apertures in the floor of the skull, to be distributed to the organs of sense and other structures in the head. They are named numerically from before backwards, but certain of them have additional names, given on account of their supposed functions. They are as follows 1st pair. The olfactory, distributed to the nose, and connected with the special sense of smell. 2d pair. The optic, passing to the eyeballs, and connected with the special sense of sight. 3d pair. Sometimes termed motores oculorum, nerves of motion, distributed to all the muscles which move the eyeballs, with the exception of the external rectus and superior oblique muscles. 4th pair. Termed the pathetici, nerves of motion, distributed to the superior oblique muscles of the eyeball. When these muscles act, the eyeball is rotated upwards and outwards, so as to give a pathe tic expression; hence the name. 5th pair. Trifacial or trigeminal nerves, both motor and sensory, conferring sensibility on the skin of the face and side of the head, mouth, lips, cheeks, and teeth; also sending a special branch, the lingual of the 5th, to the anterior part of the tongue (connected probably both with taste and tactile sensibility), and, lastly, supplying the muscles of mastication. 6th pair. Abducens, a motor nerve supplying the external rectus muscle of the eyeball. 7th pair. Divided into two portions-(1) The facial, or portio dura of the 7th, being the motor nerve of the muscles of expression; and (2) The auditory, or portio mollis of the 7th, being the nerve of the special sense of hearing, distributed to the ear. 8th pair. This consists of three nerves (1) The glosso-pharyngeal, the special nerve of taste, distributed to the posterior third of the back of the tongue. (2) The pneumogastric, or par vagum, so termed on account of its wide distribution in the neck, chest, and abdomen. This important nerve supplies both motor and sensory branches to the pharynx, motor and sensory branches to the larynx, branches to the heart, which exhibit an inhibitory or restraining action over the contractions of that organ, sensory branches to the lungs, motor and sensory branches to the esophagus, and motor and sensory branches to the stomach. (3) The spinal accessory, a motor nerve, distributed to the sterno-cleido, mastoid, and trapezius muscles in the neck. 9th pair. The hypoglossal, a motor nerve, supplying motor power to the muscles of the tongue | favour of Lady Jane Grey. Accordingly, on Mary's accession, when mass took the place of communion service, and altars and images were restored, when Gardiner became Chancellor, and a Catholic Commission was created to try Protestants for treason, heresy, and marriage, C., along with Latimer and Ridley, was thrown into the Tower. After a first trial, which was said to be irregular because the country was then unreconciled to Rome, C. was tried at Oxford in September 1555 for 'blasphemy, incontinence, and heresy.' It was not till February 1556, long after the execution of Latimer and Ridley, that the final sentence of Paul IV., anathematising C., degrading him and handing him over to the secular arm, arrived in England. Immediately after, C. received the celebrated letter from Cardinal Pole, and, exhausted by the anxieties of two and a half years' imprisonment, he issued his submission to the papal authority and his confession of Catholic dogma. In spite of this, he was publicly burnt at Oxford, 21st July 1556, surprising the Catholics by recanting his recantation at the last moment. Mr Froude strongly insists on the general purity and uprightness of C.'s character (see vol. v. of his History of England). There are special Lives of C. by Gilpin, Lebas, and Todd, and many documents under his hand are preserved in Strype's Memorials and Jenkyn's Remains. C. published in 1550 in Latin A Defence of the True and Catholic Doctrine of the Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ. His Catechism was republished at Oxford by Burton in 1829. chief works, edited by the Rev. J. Cox, were printed at Cambridge, 2 vols. 8vo, 1844-46. His Crannoges, the name given in Ireland and Scotland to artificial islands in lakes, formerly used as habitations and strong holds by the Celtic tribes. The meaning of the term is uncertain, but it is believed to refer to the timber employed in the construction of these remarkable settlements. The Pfahlbauten or pile-buildings of Switzerland will be treated of under LAKE DWELLINGS, and the present article is restricted to the C. proper, or Packwerkbauten. The difference between the two is that the former consists of dwellings on wooden platforms placed upon piles driven into the bed of a lake, and allowing the water free course beneath, while, in the latter, the huts were placed upon islands constructed in the manner described below. that Restored Crannoges. Although C. are mentioned in the Irish annals so early as the 9th c., they were unnoticed by archeologists until 1839. In year drainage operations were being carried on at the Lake of Lagore, near Dunshaughlin, County Meath, and while a trench was being cut close to a mound which had formerly been an island in the lake, great quantities of bones were discovered, no less than 150 cartloads of them being taken away. Further examination showed that the mound, whose circumference was 520 feet, was formed by posts of black oak, from 6 to 8 feet in length, mortised into beams of the same wood. These lay flat upon the marl and sand below the bog, at a depth of 16 feet from the surface. The upright posts were connected by cross-beams, and portions of a second tier of posts were resting on the lower ones. The enclosed space was subdivided by oaken beams, the sides of which were in some cases grooved or rabbeted to admit panels, driven down between them. The interior of the chambers thus formed was filled up with black moory earth and with bones, chiefly of cattle, deer, and swine, though those of goats, sheep, horses, foxes, dogs, and asses were also found. There were also many weapons, ornaments, and household utensils, made of stone, bone, wood, bronze, and iron. These remains have been fully described by their discoverer, Sir W. R. Wilde, then one of the secretaries of the Royal Irish Academy. In succeeding years' many more C. were discovered in Ireland, especially in the N. and the valley of the Shannon. As a rule, they were built upon a small islet in a lake, or on a shoal not far from the surface. The settlement was either circular or oval in shape, and was marked out by a stockade of piles. Sometimes there was a double ring of these. They were from 4 to 9 inches in diameter, and for the most part were young oak-trees, though alder-trees were also employed. They projected above the water several feet, and probably were interlaced with branches, so as to form a breastwork. The bottom of the enclosure was covered with round logs from 4 to 6 feet long, and on the top of them was piled a mass of clay, gravel, and boulders, to a height of about a foot above the surface of the water. On the island thus formed a platform was placed, covering the whole, or a portion of its area. Flat stones, which had apparently been used as hearths, were found in nearly all cases. near the centre of the platform, together with at least one pair of querns. Occasionally the C. was connected with the mainland by a causeway or a bridge of planks, but more frequently it could only be reached in a boat or canoe. From the middle of the 9th to the beginning of the 17th c. C. are mentioned in the Irish annals. They were originally intended for defence, and speedily became the strongholds of robber chiefs, who carried off to them the spoils gathered in their raids, and, favoured by the situation of their fortresses, were frequently enabled to offer a successful resistance when efforts were made to root them out. In 1857 the existence of C. in Scotland, at Banchory, in Loch Cannor, and other places, was first brought under the notice of archaeologists by Mr Joseph Robertson. In 1863 a group of. similar structures was discovered in the Loch of Dowalton, in Wigtownshire, and was described by Lord Lovaine (now Earl Percy). Since then many other C. have been discovered in various parts of Scotland. Their construction is exactly similar to that of the Irish C., and a like similarity exists with respect to the antiquarian remains found in them. The Scotch C. are frequently mentioned in history down to the end of the 18th c. Several of them were fortresses of considerable importance. That of Lochindorb, in Moray, for instance, was regarded of so much importance by Edward III., that in 1336 he marched with an army to its relief; while that of Loch Cannor, or Kinord, in Aberdeenshire, was in 1648 dismantled by order of the Estates of Parliament. In September 1875 two large canoes, in an excellent state of preservation, were drawn out of the bed of this loch. C. have also been discovered in some of the smaller lakes of Switzerland, but in the larger lakes their place was taken by the pile-buildings, whose construction was better adapted to withstand the waves of extensive sheets of water. Remains of C. also exist in the northern island of New Zealand, and Lieutenant Cameron reports (1876) the existence of similar structures in the interior of Africa. See Wilde's Catalogue of the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy; Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, vols. i. v. and vii.; Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, vol. iii.; Keller's Lake Dwellings of Switzerland and other Parts of Europe, translated and arranged by J. E. Lee ; and Lubbock's Prehistoric Times. Crape (Fr. crêpe), a gauze-like fabric made of raw silk, woven without crossing, stiffened with gum, and twisted at the mill, which gives the crispy appearance when taken from the loom. It is usually dyed black, and is much used in mourning. Cra'shaw, Richard, 'the idol of Cowley,' a minor poet, was born in London about 1616, and educated at Charter House and at Cambridge, where he took his degree in 1638. He was for a time a popular preacher in the English Church, but becoming a Roman Catholic, he went to Paris, and thence to Italy, where he became canon of the Church of Loretto. He died about 1650. C.'s poems are devout and earnest, but inferior to those of Herbert, whom he imitated. His chief works are Steps to the Temple, The Delights of the Muses, and Carmen Deo Nostro. Pope borrows frequently from C., especially in Eloisa. See Turnbull's edition (J. R. Smith, Lond. 1858). 277 |