greatly at the battles of Marston Moor, 3d July 1644, and Newbury, and when the celebrated 'self-denying ordinance' was passed, became lieutenant-general of the Parliament forces under Fairfax, and as such commanded the right wing of the Parliamentary army at the decisive battle of Naseby, 14th June 1645. From that time to his death C.'s history is the history of his country. After the king fell into the hands of Parliament, he crushed the insurrection of the Scots in favour of the King, at Preston Moor, 17th August 1648. After the execution of the King he was appointed lieutenant-general, and quickly and surely stamped out a rebellion in Ireland. When the young prince, afterwards Charles II., landed in Scotland, C. superseded Presbyterian and wavering Fairfax, marched into that country, and totally defeated the Scotch under Leslie at Dunbar, September 3, 1650. The Royalists having invaded England, C. gained a final victory at Worcester, September 3, 1651. C. now found himself at variance with the Rump, which had become a mere clique❘ of crotcheteers and talkers, and dissolved it, 20th April 1653. He summoned a new Parliament, but was compelled to dissolve it also, although not before it had invested him with the title of Lord Protector. From thence to his death, although he repeatedly summoned Parliaments, he was really absolute ruler of England; and the country never was more respected and feared abroad than during the Protectorship of C.; and although he was never popular, and was in constant danger of assassination, even his enemies admitted the wisdom of his domestic measures. After a brilliant but yet melancholy term of solitary power, he died September 3, 1658, on the anniversary of some of his greatest victories. In 1661 his remains were dragged by brutal Royalists from their resting-place in Westminster Abbey, and, along with those of Bradshaw and Ireton, hanged at Tyburn. For some time after | his death C. was looked upon as a fanatic, tyrant, and hypocrite; but that shallow and ignoble hypothesis has been banished from historical literature by the industry and genius of Carlyle. He now ranks as perhaps the greatest and (circumstances considered) wisest ruler England has ever had. While his religion was emphatically a matter of the heart and soul, he was no bigot, as the manner in which he protected the Jews, and even the Unitarian Biddle, showed. În his brilliant foreign policy there occurred perhaps only one mistake-his considering Spain, and not France, as the Roman Catholic power in Europe most to be feared. See Carlyle's O. C.'s Letters and Speeches, with Elucidations, Guizot's Histoire de la Révolution d'Angleterre, and Green's Short History of the English People (Lond. 1875). RICHARD C., eldest son of the preceding, was born at Huntingdon, October 4, 1626. When his father became Lord Protector, he made his son First Lord of Trade and Navigation and Chancellor of Oxford. Richard proved, however, a feeble, indolent, and self-indulgent man; and when, on his father's death in 1658, he succeeded him as Lord Protector, he was unable to contend against the factions that opposed him in Parliament and in the army, and resigned his post seven months after accepting it. He went to the Continent, and returned in 1680, when he assumed the name of Clarke, and lived in retirement at Cheshunt. There he died in 1712. Cromwell, Thomas, the real author of the great ecclesiastical and political revolution accomplished in the reign of Henry VIII., and of whom it has been well said that, 'in the whole line of English statesmen, there is no one of whom we would willingly know so much, no one of whom we really know so little,' was born about 1490 near London, and in humble circumstances, the popular story being that his father was a blacksmith at Putney. For a time he led a roving, adventurous life, was engaged when a mere boy in the service of the Marchioness of Dorset, and took part in the Italian war as a common soldier or 'ruffian,' as he described himself on one occasion to Cranmer, obtaining, however, a knowledge both of the language and of the politics of Italy. He next appears as a commercial agent to a Venetian merchant, and clerk to a factory at Antwerp, and, probably after another visit to Italy, he returned to England about 1517. At all events, he is found about the beginning of the reign of Henry VIII. as a thriving wool merchant and scrivener in Middleborough. C. now took an active interest in political life, and became a member of the House of Commons. The turningpoint in his life, however, was his becoming the confidential servant of Wolsey, who employed him in the unpopular work of suppressing some of the smaller monasteries, and transferring 288 | their revenues to Ipswich and Oxford. C. stood by his master to the last, and chivalrously and successfully defended him against the bill of impeachment in the House of Commons. Owing, perhaps, to his suggestion that the King should substitute his own supremacy in the Church for that of the Pope, Henry took him into favour, and made him his secretary and a privy councillor. He rose rapidly from post to post and from honour to honour, and when at length he was made Lord Chamberlain and Earl of Essex, he was the most powerful subject and statesman in Great Britain. He had conceived a definite policy, and carried it relentlessly through. It was to render the King the centre of all authority in England, by reducing the Church, in the language of Mr Green (Short History of the English People), to a mere department of the State, in which all authority should flow from the sovereign alone, and in which his will should be the only law, his decision the only test of truth.' test of truth.' C. did not succeed to the extent he intended, but still he was so far able to accomplish his intentions, that to this day the polity of the Church of England remains substantially the same as it was created by him. It will always be remembered to his credit that, although perhaps for purely political reasons, he took a prominent part in establishing Reformation principles, he had English Bibles placed in the churches, and had the youth of the nation taught the Creed, the Ten Commandments, and the Lord's Prayer. His policy-particularly his maintaining a large army of spies, his sending to the block every one that opposed his measures, and the resolute manner in which he put down monasteries, securing for him the title of Malleus Monachorum-raised him up a host of enemies. Many complaints regarding him were presented to the King, who in the end deserted him for promoting his marriage with Anne of Cleves, to whom he had taken a dislike. Ultimately C. was arrested and thrown into prison, and being condemned on the charges of treason and malversation, was executed on Tower Hill, 28th | July 1540. Cronstadt. See KRONSTADT. Crook, a lengthening tube used in brass instruments, which enables them to be played with the same fingering in different keys. Crook'ed Island, one of the Bahamas, 27 miles E. of the S. point of Long Island, from which it is separated by C. I. Passage. Area, about 80 sq. miles; pop. between 600 and 700. Like most other islands of the group, it has a considerable export trade in salt. Crop, or Outcrop, is the place where a stratum rises to the surface of the ground. It corresponds to the strike on a level area. See DIP AND STRIKE. Crop. In Scotland, the landlord has a Hypothec (q. v.) over the C. for the rent of the year of which it is the C.; and the right continues in force so long as the C. remains in the tenant's possession. Cropp'ing, a term of the agricultural law of Scotland indicating stipulated or implied conditions of farming under a lease. in leases. It provides, among other things, for a variety or rotaWhat is called the clause of management is now generally inserted tion of crops. This rotation varies according to the soil, climate, and other circumstance of the farm. Even in the absence of such a clause, there is an implied obligation on the tenant to cultivate according to the rules of good husbandry. By common law a tenant is restrained from such gross mismanagement as will injure or overwork the soil. It is generally provided that white corn crops (ie., crops which are allowed to ripen) shall never be taken from the same land in immediate succession, and that a certain proportion shall be under turnips, or plain fallow, every year, and be sown to grass with the first corn crop after turnips or fallow. The clause is generally enforced by penalty in case of contravention, as to which the law is, that the tenant is not entitled to pay the penalty and to infringe the clause. Cro'quet, perhaps a modification of the old game of Pallmall, is a favourite lawn amusement of modern origin, played by any number of persons up to eight, either individually or on sides.' The necessary implements of the game are wooden mallets, balls, also of wood, a pair of pegs, and iron hoops or rings. The rings are arranged in a variety of ways, a common form being shown in the accompanying diagram, and the pegs are placed at the starting and turning points of the game respectively. The object of the game is to drive the balls with the mallets through the rings outward, in the order shown in the diagram, and after 'pegging'-i.e., hitting the peg at the upper end-to return home in a corresponding order, taking the rings on the off-side. On n pegging at the home-end, the player has finished, and winning is reckoned according to the order in which this is accomplished. The various rules of this interesting and healthful game are well laid down in Jacques' Laws and Regulations of the Game n of c Croquet. n is repeatedly found on the coins and columns of Constantine the Great. The Greek Church represents the instrument on which Jesus Christ was crucified as having the transverse beam laid across the middle of the upright one, both being equal. This shape is called the Greek C. The C. became an object of veneration to Christians after the crucifixion of Christ. The early Christians multiplied models of it; and after Constantine's victory in 312 over Maxentius, through the influence, as he professed to believe, of the sign of the C. which he is said to have seen in the sky, it began to be set up in public places and on public buildings. Then also the custom of crossing, or making in the air with the hand the sign of the C., began to prevail. It was not till the 6th c. that the bare emblem of the C. was transformed into the image of the Crucifix (q. v..). The festival of the Invention of the C.' is held on the 3d of May, and that of the 'Elevation' on the 14th of September. The former commemorates the alleged finding of the true C., in the year 326, by the Empress Helena, mother of Constantine; the latter its re-erection, in the year 628, at Jerusalem by the Emperor Heraclius, after it had been carried away by the Persians, The C. has been deeply impressed on all the external features of Christian civilisation. It has been extensively used as the ground-plan of churches. The plan of the Cathedral of St Mark, Venice, is a Greek C.; that of St Peter's is a Latin C. (q.v.). Churches commonly exhibit the C. on their gable-ends. It was early borne, as it still is, in ecclesiastical processions; an enormous C. made of wood and cardboard is carried in some of these processions at Rome, balanced in a waistband round the body of a man. The C. placed over the altar is called the As an ornament of Christian art, the C. has exercised the ingenuity of artists in all ages. The Romanesque period indulged in great luxury in this respect, a wooden C. being overlaid with gold or silver, and ornamented with jewels, gems, pearls, enamelled representations, and filigree work. In the Gothic epoch, the C. had generally the ends of its four arms trefoiled. Reliquaries of the most elaborate description were constantly made in the shape of a C. Cross (Lat. crux, a pale or stake;' a cross'), two pieces of wood placed transversely, and anciently used in a mode of punishment which probably arose from the custom of fastening culprits or prisoners to trees, and leaving them to die by hunger or by wild beasts. The Persians, Syrians, Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Carthagi-Rood (q. v.), or holy rood. nians used this mode of capital punishment, which was at Rome, under the government of the kings, inflicted on persons of all conditions in life, but later only on slaves and the vilest malefactors. According to Roman law, the sufferer was first scourged, and then compelled to carry his C. to the place of execution, outside the town in which the sentence had been passed. Here he was stripped naked, and fastened to the C. by tying or nailing. The punishment was abolished in the time of Constantine. Instances are on record of persons being taken down and surviving after remaining some time on the C. During the reign of Louis XV. of France, several women (religious enthusiasts called ! + Reliquary Cross from St Lorenzo, before Rome. t The memorial C. has in all the ages of Christianity been a favourite mode of expressing regret för the dead. It is used for this purpose in all its shapes in places of interment. One form of it, the Norman C., is a Gothic turret, either standing on the ground or elevated a few steps. Waltham C., near London, erected by Edward I. in memory of his Queen Eleanor, and recently restored, with questionable taste, is a good specimen. The Runic C., said to be of Scandinavian.origin, and named after the Runes (q.v.), in which its inscriptions are written, seems to have been frequently set up in memory of some hero of the state or of the Church-some king, warrior, or bishop. There were formerly many of these in the Island of Iona, but now convulsionaires) voluntarily under-only one remains-St Martin's, in the cathedral grounds. They went crucifixion as a part of their were common in Ireland-St Luke's, which still stands in the religious services. county of Louth, being of huge dimensions. owing to its diagonals being a Greek C. Some of the most famous of English market-crosses, as at Salisbury, Chichester, Bristol, and Winchester, are designed with niches, and vaulted, leaving an open chamber. These crosses seem to have been used as preaching stations; notably St Paul's C., London, of which we read as early as the middle, of the 13th c. The neighbouring cathedral, St Paul's, is surmounted by one of the largest constructed crosses in the world, a rival to that on St Peter's at Rome. The C. was in form either simple or composite. The simple The sanctuary or boundary. C. marked off Church lands, and C. (crux simplex) was a mere stake on which the condemned showed the people on their way to church where to kneel when was impaled (infixus), or on which he was fastened by the they were entering sacred grounds. they were entering sacred grounds. One of these latter is still hands crossed above his head (affixus). A tree-hence Seneca's to be seen on a field near the parish church of Kilhoman, Islay. phrase, infelix lignum, the accursed tree'-was convenient for The market-C. has left its name where it stood in many towns the purpose. There were several forms of the composite C. of England and Scotland. It is noticeable that in some towns (crux compacta). The most common, the crux decussata-resem-of Ireland the market-place is called the diamond-probably bling the letter X, from decussis, the number ten-is also called St Andrew's C., implying that that saint was crucified on an instrument of this shape. Another form, the Tau-C. (cmux (çnux immissa), was shaped like the Greek letter tau or T. It is called St Anthony's C., because it was said to have been embroidered on that saint's cope. A variety of this is the crux ansata C. with a handle-from ansa, 'a handle.' It has a circle at the head of the upright beam, is found on Assyrian and Egyptian sculptures, also among the Copts, Indians, and Persians, and is supposed to have been the symbol of a divinity, or an emblem of life. The most historically famous is the crux immissa or crux capitata-the Latin or High C.-which has the longer upright beam, or stirpes, projecting above the cross-piece or patibulum. This is held by tradition to be the form of C. on which Jesus Christ was crucified; the titulus, or accusation on which he suffered, being placed above his head seems to confirm this supposition; and a further confirmation is, that this C. 112 Cross, in heraldry, one of the honourable ordinaries, may be regarded as a combination of a fesse with a pale. It was usual for the Christian warriors in the crusades and for pilgrims to the Holy Land to wear it as a badge. The varieties of the C. are very numerous; but when the blazon is a simple St George's C., it is always understood as meaning the honourable ordinary. There are two classes of the ornamental C.-those in which the extremities reach to the outer edge of the shield, and those which 289 are Couped (q. v.). See Lipsius, De Cruce; Gretser, De Cruce Christi; and Lubke, Ecclesiastical Art in Germany, &c., also Eng. trans. (T. C. Jack, Edinb. 1873). Cross, Order of the, an ecclesiastical order of knighthood which arose in Palestine during the crusades, as the Bethlehemite Order, but now has its chief seat in Bohemia, where Church dignitaries and professors of the University of Prague are among its members. In the 13th c. the knights of this order became monks, and in 1328 were confirmed by Pope Gregory IX. as a monastic community. They settled chiefly in Poland, Austria, Moravia, Silesia, and Bohemia. Their badge is a C. of red satin, with a six-pointed star under it; hence they are sometimes called stelliferi or star-bearers. Cross, the Southern, a bright constellation of the southern hemisphere, consisting of four stars, the line joining two of which points to the S. pole, forming with the line joining the other two a very perfect C. The brightest star is nearest the pole, and is between the first and second magnitudes. Cross, Victoria, a British order, instituted for eminent personal valour in 1856, at the close of the Crimean War. A single act of valour may win this decoration, and it is granted to a soldier of any rank, as in the cases of Lieutenant Marsham Havelock, son of the famous general Sir Henry Havelock, at the battle of Cawnpore, and Lieutenants Salkeld and Home, Sergeant Smith, and Bugler Hawthorne, at the blowing-in of the Cashmere Gate in 1857, during the suppression of the Indian Mutiny. The order is said to have been founded in imitation of the French C. of the Legion of Honour; but it resembles the ancient English decoration of the partially-created baron, called a Banneret (q. v.). The badge is a bronze Maltese C., charged with the royal crown and lion crest, below which is inscribed the motto, 'For Valour.' On the clasp, from which the letter 'V' hooks the C., there are two branches of laurel; and the ribbon is red for the army, blue for the navy. The pension accompanying this decoration is £10 a year. Cross-Bill in Chancery is a suit in Chancery instituted by a defendant against the plaintiff in a pending suit, for the purpose of making a claim or defence which cannot be made in that suit. See regarding Scotch law, CONJOINING OF PRO CESSES. Cross'bill (Loxia), a genus of Conirostral (Insessorial) birds, of the sub-family Loxine, in which the mandibles of the bill are hooked or crossed, and compressed at their tips. The head is large, and the bill strong. 'These birds feed on the seeds of pine-cones, and their bills are well adapted for extracting the seeds and for crushing the cones. The common C. (Loxia curvirostra), the parrot *C. (L. pityopsittacus), and the white-winged C. (L. leucoptera), occur in Britain. The first species is common in Europe and in N. America, where the last species is also found. The common species rarely breeds in Britain. The nest is of grass and twigs and placed at the top of pine-trees. Crossbill. Crossbow. See ARBALEST, ARCHERY. Cross-Buns, Good-Friday cakes with a cross upon them, long popular in England, where they are hawked about the streets of many towns with the cry, Hot cross-buns.' The origin of this practice is not known; it is perhaps a relic of a heathen custom adopted by the early Christian Church. Crosse, Andrew, an eminent electrician, was born at Fyne Court, Broomfield, Somersetshire, June 17, 1784. After studying at Oxford, he returned to his family seat in 1805, where he devoted himself to electricity. C. made many successful experiments regarding the formation of crystals, and formed numerous artificial minerals through the agency of voltaic currents. He communicated his discoveries of thirty years' labour to the British Assocition in 1836, and was highly commended by many scientific men. His most wonderful discovery was the apparent generation of certain acari between the electrodes immersed in a highly caustic solution. For this he was charged with impiety, and was forced to defend himself. C. died July 6, 1855. His widow published a memoir of his life and labours (1857). Cross-Examination. The following are, in England, the chief rules affecting C.-E. Leading questions may be put; irrelevant questions for the purpose of injuring the credibility of the witness are inadmissible; when not put for this purpose, some latitude in questioning is usually allowed. The witness may be asked if he has been guilty of a specified crime, but he is not bound to answer. See EVIDENCE. 1 Crossopo'dia, the name given to certain kinds of wormmarkings or tracts occurring in the Silurian and other rocks, and formerly, but erroneously, described as consisting of the body or C. Scotica of the Silurian rocks actual fossil of the worm itself. is a good example of these appearances, which are similar to those produced on modern coasts by marine-worms burrowing in or trailing across the sand. Crossopteryg'idæ, a division of Ganoid (q. v.) fishes, so named from the fin-rays of the pectoral and ventral fins being arranged so as to form a fringe around a central lobe. The living Barramunda (q. v.), or Ceratodus of Australian rivers, shows this arrangement of the fins; whilst the Polypterus of the Nile, and the extinct genera Osteolepis, Megalichthys, Holoptychius, &c., are good fossil illustrations of the 'fringe-finned' ganoids. Crotala'ria. See BENGAL HEMP. Crotalidæ, a family of Viperine snakes, represented by the Crotalus horridus, or Rattlesnake (q. v.) of Ñ. America, and distinguished by the presence of a deep pit on each side of the nose behind the nostril. The head is broad and flat, scaly on, the crown, and scutellate on its sides and on the nose. The teeth are small; no teeth save the fangs existing in the upper jaw. The belly is covered with broad shields. The tail may be provided with a rattle or with a spine. Cro'taphite, the name given by the older anatomists to the temporal muscle on the side of the head, from krotaphos, 'the temple.' The term was also applied to the temporal bones and arteries. Crotch, William, an English musician, born at Norwich in 1775. In 1797 he obtained the degree of Doctor of Music at Oxford, when he became Professor of Music, and in 1822 became Principal of the Royal Academy of Music. His anthems are his best-known compositions, but he wrote also for the organ and piano. He was the author also of some good theoretical works. He died 29th December 1847. Crotchet. See MUSIC. Cro'to, or Croton. See COTRONE. Croton, a genus of Euphorbiaceous plants. The seeds of C. Tiglium yield Croton Oil (q. v.). The seeds of C. Pavana and C. Polyandrum are also purgative. Most of the species are aromatic. Among these may be ranked C. Eleutheria, of the island of Eleuthera, one of the Bahamas, which yields cascarilla bark. The Eau de Mantes, a spirituous liquor, is made from C. balsamiferum of the W. Indies, and is used in irregular menstruation. C. lacciferum and C. Draco yield a resin used in varnish-making. Other aromatic, fragrant, and balsamic species are found in the W. Indies, the Cape of Good Hope, &c. The aromatic tonic Malambo bark, or Matias bark, is the produce of C. Malambo, and is used in Columbia as a remedy in diarrhoea, as a vermifuge, &c. See also COPALCHE BARK. Croton Oil is expressed from the seeds of Croton Tiglium (see CROTON), is viscid, of a yellowish-brown colour, an acrid It is an exceedingly powerful taste, and a nauseous odour. purgative. Dose, one-third to one drop. Externally it is used as a liniment, one of C. O. to seven of olive oil, or some other oil, and produces pustules on the skin. It is good for counterirritation, as in internal inflammations. Crotoph'aga (Gr. 'tick-eaters'), a genus of Scansorial birds, known as the Anis or sub-family Crotophagine, the typical genus C. being confined to S. America, and possessing a much-com pressed bill, with the edge of the upper mandible sharply keeled. C. ani, or the Savannah blackbird, is a familiar species, and is found in the W. Indies, feeding on insects such as ticks, &c., which it picks out of the hides of horses or cattle. Croup is an inflammatory affection of the windpipe, accompanied by the formation of a membranous exudation on the mucous surfaces attacked. The symptoms at first are those of a common cold, but they soon become alarming. The patient, generally in the night-time, awakens with a sense of suffocation-with a peculiar cough, called by physicians 'brassy.' The breathing is quick, and there is a peculiar crowing noise as the air enters the lungs. There are occasional spasms of the muscles of the windpipe. C. is always worst during the night. The sufferer is very restless, and is frequently seen tearing at his mouth or throat as if to clear the windpipe of the obstruction causing impending suffocation. If relief be not obtained in the course of a day or two, death ensues from exhaustion, suffocation, or convulsions. C. is specially a disease of infancy, being most frequent during the second year. It is rare after five years of age, and is more common among boys than girls. It occurs chiefly in cold, damp climates, and is very fatal: one-half of those attacked die, and generally within two or three days. The proper treatment is to give emetics and purgatives at the outset, to apply hot sponges to the throat, to keep the child warm in. bed, and to allow it to inhale moist warm air.. In, extreme cases Tracheotomy (q. v.) sometimes does good. Crow (Corvus), a genus of Insessores belonging to the suborder Conirostres (q. v.). The true crows, forming the sub-family Corvine, are known by their want of toothed, processes at the tip of the upper mandible, the ridge of which is curved, by the long and rounded wings, by the scaly tarsi, and by the two lateral toes being of equal size. Of the British crows, the Raven (q. v.) (Corvus corax), the common carrion C. (C. corone), the rook (C. frugile gus), and jackdaw (C. mone-. dula) are the best known. The Royston or hooded C. (C. cornix) is another species found in Britain. Variations in colour between these forms constitute the chief grounds of specific distinction. Other species of crows are the N. American C. (C. Americanus), the fishing C. (C. ossifragus) of the United States, the jabbering C. (C. Famaicensis) of Jamaica, the smaller ebony C. of Ceylon, or Indian C. (C. splendens), &c. The Choughs (q. v.) are nearly related to the crows, but are usually included in a separate sub-family (Pyrrho. coracina). The Alpine C. (Pyrrhocorax alpinus) is one of the Hooded Crow. latter birds. Crow'berry, or Crake'berry (Empetrum), a genus of dwarf, creeping, heath-like shrubs, belonging to the natural order Empetraceæ, found in high latitudes, and on high, bleak moorlands and mountains in Scotland, the N. of England, and similar parts of Europe and America. The name is, however, generally applied to E. nigrum-the black berries of which are eaten by gamebirds and also by crows, who in regions where this berry is common leave the fields and resort to the hillsides to live on it till harvest-time: hence the name C. Its berries are eaten by the Its berries are eaten by the Highlanders, the Russian peasants, and by the Greenlanders mixed with train-oil. Boiled in alum, they yield a purple dye, and are used by the Laplanders for dyeing sable and otter skins black. E. rubrum, of the vicinity of Cape Horn, has edible red. berries. The Portuguese Camarinheira (Corema alba) is closely allied to Empetrum, and is used in the preparation of an acidulous liquor used as a drink in fevers. By some authors, it is described as Empetrum lusitanicum. i Crow'foot. See RANUNCulus. Crowland, or Croy'land, an ancient town in the 'Fens' of Lincolnshire, 48 miles S.S. W. of Lincoln. It consists of four streets separated by watercourses with willows on their margin, and connected by a triangular bridge of three segments of a circle springing from three piers, but meeting in a point, across the Welland, the Nen, and a large drain called the Catwater. It is supposed to be as old as the time of Edward II. C. has also the ruins of an abbey said to have been founded in the 8th c. It was frequently destroyed and as frequently rebuilt, and part of it is still used as the parish church. Ingulphus was one of its abbots. Pop. (1871) 2459. Crown, an ornament worn on the head as a symbol of regal or imperial station and dignity. In its derivation the modern C. comes from the corona which, among the ancient Greeks and Romans, was bestowed as an honorary reward to victors in athletics and public games; but in its real significance it represents the diadem or circlet which was worn by Oriental and early Roman kings. Crowns mentioned in Scripture were wreaths similar in nature and signification to the honorary crowns of the ancient Romans. Originally crowns were plaited or twisted of grass, leaves, twigs, flowers, or other inexpensive materials; but gradually they began, for certain purposes, to be made of precious metals and stones, and some of them were of very great value. Among the Romans, who bestowed crowns with a very lavish hand, the classes and varieties of such decorations were very numerous. Crowns of various descriptions and materials were conferred for distinguished conduct or service in military or naval undertakings; of which type the corona triumphalis may be noted as an example. This was bestowed on a victorious general to whom a public triumph was decreed, and consisted, first, of a wreath of laurel or bay leaves; second, a golden C., presented by the army which by the various provinces. Emblematical crowns were worn by he had led to glory; and third, another C. of gold contributed special classes, as, for example, the priests; and on particular occasions, such as funerals, weddings, and social festivities. The radiated C., which was originally reserved for deities and deified mortals, was adopted by several of the Roman emperors, Nero having been the first to use it as an imperial badge. crowns, because the diadem or circlet is overarched by a series The Prince of Wales, as heir-apparent to the British throne, has a coronet closed with only one arch, surmounted with a mound and cross. Other members of the royal family, dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts, and barons, have open coronets, which are heightened for their various grades according to strict heraldic order, The charges of heraldry are mostly varieties and modifications of ancient crowns. See MITRE. Crown Agent is the agent or solicitor in Scotland who, under the Lord Advocate, takes charge of criminal proceedings. The appointment lies with the Lord Advocate for the time, and is not held ad vitam aut culpam. Crown Debts. By English law, debts due to the crown have a preference over all debts due to a subject. They are recoverable by a summary process, called an Extent (q. v.). In Scotland this rule only holds with regard to personal or movable property; and in a competition affecting heritage the crown has no privilege. The crown privilege is, however, good against the landlord's Hypothec (q. v.). It is also effectual against mercantile sequestration; consequently a discharge under the Scotch Bankruptcy Act is not effectual against a crown debt. Crown Imperial. See FRITILLARY. Crown Lands. Under various statutes all grants or leases exceeding thirty-one years of lands belonging to the crown are void. The superintendence of C. L. is now vested in the Commissioners of Woods, Forests, and Land Revenues (q. v.). Crucibles are vessels employed in fusing metals, glass, &c. They are made of refractory materials, and are generally of a conical shape. The substances used in their composition are various-platinum, fireclay, a mixture of graphite and fireclay (Plumbago C.), porcelain, iron, &c. Crucible. Cruciferæ, a natural order of Dicoty ledonous herbaceous plants (rarely shrubs), belonging to the subdivision Thalamiflora, so called because the four petals are placed in the form of a cross ('cross-bearing'). With the exception of a few plants of the natural order Capparidaceae, this is the only order having tetradynamous stamens (ie., four long and two short). About 1730 species and over 205 genera, distributed chiefly in temperate climates, are known; a large number inhabit high latitudes, and a few are found in the tropics, chiefly on the side of mountains. Cheiranthus ('wallflower"), Arabis, Hesperis Dame's violet, qv.), Capsella (shepherd's purse'), Teesdalia, &c., are examples. Antiscorbutic and pungent properties, freseeds generally contain a pungent fixed oil. Many of them conChamplain.quently combined with acridity, characterise this order. tain sulphur, and the watercress contains iodine (Mülder). order comprises many of our most common culinary vegetables, but not a single poisonous plant. All the plants popularly known as Cress (q. v.), Kale (see BRASSICA), Mustard (q. v.), &c., belong to this order. Woad (Isatis tinctoria), which yields the blue dye with which it is said the ancient Britons stained their skins, and I. indigotica, used in China in place of indigo, wallflower, stock (Matthiola), candytuft (Iberis), honesty (Lunaria biennis), and other favourite garden flowers, are also members of this order. It has various subdivisions, according to the nature of the fruit and the way the embryo is folded. Crown Point, a fort famous in the French, Indian,, and Revolutionary wars, stands on the W.. side of Lake Champlain,, and on the long narrow reach of the upper or southern end of the lake. Along with Ticonderoga, it guarded the pass of the great military route between New York, and Montreal which nature has made by the Hudson River and Lake Champlain. It was taken from the English in 1775 by Ethan Allen, and is now a ruin. The village of C. P. is 100 miles N. of Albany. Pop. of township about 2500. Crown Solicitor is the solicitor to the Treasury who in state prosecutions in England acts for the crown. In Ireland a C. S. is attached to each circuit. His duties are analogous to those of the Procurator-Fiscal (q. v.) and Crown Agent (q, v.) in Scotland. See PROSECUTOR, PROSECUTION.. Crow-Stone. See CORBIE STEPS.. Croy'don (Fr. Croie dune, chalk hill," from its situation on. the edge of the Thames chalk basin), a town of Surrey, on the London and Brighton Railway, ro miles S. W. of Greenwich. There are several railway stations at C., of which the principal are the East, West, and New C. Its main street extends along the London and Brighton road for more than a mile and a quarter, and is flanked on both sides with respectable shops and several handsome buildings. The fine old parish church was entirely destroyed by fire in 1867, with the exception of the tower; but it has since been to a certain extent restored. It has several other good Gothic churches, a large new public hall, and numerous mansions and villas in the neighbourhood. The chief trade is in corn and butter. Two annual fairs are held-the one on July 5, the other on October 2. Pop. (1871) 55,652. Crozet' Islands, an uninhabited volcanic group in the Indian Ocean, 385 miles S.W. by W. of the Cape of Good Hope. The western extremity of the largest (Possession Island) is in lat. 469 22 S. and long. 51° 30′ E.. Area about 200 sq. miles. Crozoph'ora, a genus of annual or perennial low-growing plants (natural order. Euphorbiaceœ), found in tropical and Northern Africa, and'extending as far as India. C. tinctoria, a native of the Mediterranean countries, is cultivated for the sake of the dye called Turnsole, which is obtained from it by grinding the plants (little herbs seldom more than a foot high) to a pulp in a mill, when they yield about half their weight of a dark-green juice, which becomes purple by exposure to the air or under the influence of ammonia. It is chiefly exported to Holland, and is prepared for exportation by soaking coarse linen rags or sacking with it, the rags being previously washed clean. After soaking they are allowed to dry, and are exposed to the influence of ammonia by being suspended over heaps of stable manure. They are then packed in sacks, and ready for shipping to Holland. Not much is known of the use the Dutch put the dye to, but it is supposed to be chiefly employed as a colouring matter for cheese, and perhaps confectionery, wine, &c. (Black in Treas. of Botany). It has been confounded with Litmus (q. v.).. Cru'cian or German Carp (Cyprinus carassius), a species of Cyprinidæ (q. v.) or Carps (q. v.), possessing no tentacles or barbules at the mouth, and a square tail. This fish inhabits lakes and rivers of N. Europe and Asia. It has been found in the Thames. Its flesh is palatable.. 292 | The The Crucifix (Lat. crux, crucis, and figo, 'I fix') is a figure of Christ on the cross. It was several centuries till Christian art chose to represent Christ in this way as a suffering Saviour; its aim at first being to inspire faith more than pity, by reminding men of his having died for them, without reference to the agonies of his death. The earliest existing crucifixes are supposed to belong to the 9th c.; the first mention of them is perhaps in the writings of Gregory, Bishop of Tours (544-595). For the same reason, in some of the earliest Christ is represented as erect and robed, with no nails,. wounds, or crown of thorns, and without any sign of pain. Besides the figure of Christ, there are also usually a number of minor figures on the C. The ends of the transverse beam of the cross are occupied with figures of the Virgin and St John, or of the sun and moon; at the upper end is the hand of the Father blessing Christ or holding a wreath; at the foot is the serpent and a skull; or the four ends are occupied by the attributes of the four Evangelists, &c. See The History of Our Lord, by Mrs Jameson and Lady Eastlake. Cru'den, Alexander, to whose labours British divines are much indebted, was born at Aberdeen, 31st May 1700. He was educated at Marischal College in that city, and but for a tendency to insanity, would have entered the Church. In 1722 he went to London, where he was, in succession, a private tutor, a bookseller, and a corrector for the press.. In 1737 appeared the work with which his name will always be associated, his Complete Concordance of the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testament, which stands still the first of its kind. Many editions have been published, that of Chalmers being still the most popular. C. was frequently deranged, and on one occasion he was confined in a private lunatic asylum, where, according to his own statements, he was harshly treated. His delusion that he was divinely commissioned to reform the people resulted in his taking to himself the title of 'Alexander the Corrector.' He was, however, a virtuous and benevolent man. C. died at Islington, November 1, 1770. ፡ Cruikshank, George, an eminent caricaturist, was born in London, September 27, 1792. His artistic powers showed themselves at an early age, and after the death of his father, who was a native of Aberdeenshire, he began to illustrate books for children. He subsequently illustrated two satirical publications, The Scourge and The Meteor, while his illustrations of the political squibs of the late William Hone attracted much attention. Turning to worthier and more ambitious work, he illus |