trated various books of fiction, including some by Dickens, such as Oliver Twist, and produced pieces like The Bottle, eight large plates, depicting the vice of intemperance, of which he is a vigorous assailant, being personally a total abstainer. He attained the highest success as an illustrator, and a position not unlike that held by Hogarth as a teacher of morality by means of satirical sketches. C. has of late years turned his attention to oil-painting. Among his best paintings are 'Tam o' Shanter,' Disturbing a Congregation' (painted for the late Prince Consort), and The Worship of Bacchus.' C., who is still vigorous, and whose character shows genius in alliance with simplicity of heart and genuine benevolence, is understood to be now (1876) engaged on his autobiography. Crui'ser (Dut. kruisen, to move crosswise,' from kruis, 'a cross'), a Government ship chiefly employed. in watching an enemy or pirates. Cru'ra, a term used in anatomy to designate the roots or peduncles or supports of Thus we have the C. cerebri, any structure. or peduncles of the brain, the C..cerebelli, or peduncles of the cerebellum, the C. of the diaphragm, the C. of the corpora cavernosa of the penis, &c., &c. Cruræ'us. The great muscle in front of the thigh, which extends the leg on the knee-joint, called the quadriceps extensor, is a large fleshy mass which covers the front and sides of the femur, and is usually divided by anatomists into four parts: (1) One occupying the middle of the thigh, the rectus fermoris; (2) one portion occupying the outer side of the femur, vastus externus; (3) a third portion covering the inner aspect of the femur, vastus internus; and (4) the remainder covering the middle of the femur, between the two last named-the C. Cruithne, Cruithneach (Lat.. Crutheni), the name given by Irish writers to that branch of the Celtic race which, at the dawn of history, inhabited both the N. of Ireland and the N. of Scotland, and which by the Latin chroniclers is deno-reign minated Picti. No satisfactory explanation of the meaning of the term has yet been given, and it is needless to refer to the various fables which bring the C.. from distant countries some of them to Ireland, thence to Scotland, while others reverse the process. But it deserves notice that almost all these accounts represent them as soldiers from a distance, who obtained wives from the Irish, and whose children consequently spoke the Irish language; and this probably represents the fact of their being intruders on some older branch of Celts, settling among them and intermarrying with them. It appears that as far back as history goes the C. possessed Ulster and a portion of Meath, while at the same time they held the whole N. of Scotland-then known as Alba, the name Scotia being applied to Ireland, or Erin. The Pictish Chronicle, written in the 11th c., says that Cruithne, the son of Cirge, had seven sons-Fib, Fidach, Fodla, Fortren, Cait,, Ce, Circin-and that they divided Alba into seven portions.. This means that the territory occupied by the C. consisted of seven provinces bearing the above names. Fib represents Fife; Fortren, the western parts of Perthshire;. Fodla, Athole, written of old At-fodla; Circin, in old writings, Magh-circin, now Mearns; Cait, Caith-consisting of German peasants, led by a monk, Godeschal, perness. The remaining two have not been hitherto identified; but Dalkeith, in Celtic, Dail-Cé, the portion or field of Cé,' may represent one of them, while Fidach must meantime be left landless. The Scots, another Celtic branch, encroached on the C. in Ireland, and in the beginning of the 6th c. established themselves in Argyleshire, eventually extending their sway over the whole kingdom, to which they gave their own name of Scotland; but, as the name Picts is much better, known than that of C., the circumstances of this change of name and dynasty, as far as they can be known, will be given under that heading. The only thing, necessary to state here is, that the common idea of the extinction of the Picts, or C., by the Scots, is altogether a fable.. The King of the Scots, Kenneth M'Alpine, obtained in the 9th c. the throne of Northern Pictland (Cruithnetuaith) by inheritance. Through the aid of its inhabitants he subdued other portions of the kingdom, and united Scotland, as it finally came to be called, under one head.. The C. or Picts represent the old Caledonians, who so long and so manfully resisted the Romans. A remnant of their descendants, it cannot be doubted, still occupy the ancestral mountains. : For a full account of the early history of Scotland see Skene's various writings on the subject, particularly his introduction to the Chronicles of the Picts and Scots and, his Celtic Scotland (1st vol. Edinb. 1876), a work which entitles him to be regarded as the greatest authority on the Celtic antiquities of Scotland. Crusades (Fr. croisades, from croix, Lat. crux, 'a cross') were the military expeditions of European nations during the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries to vindicate the right of Christian pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and latterly to seize and hold Jerusalem against the Turks. From the capture of Jerusalem by Omar.in A.D. 637 till the reign of Hakem, the third Fatimite Calif, the Christian inhabitants and pilgrims merely paid a tax to the Mohammedan governor— Harun al. Rashid having delivered the city keys to Charlemagne. Hakem, however, persecuted the Christians, and mutilated the rock of the Sepulchre and the Church of the Resurrection. As the Catholic Church commuted penances for pilgrimages, many Europeans of all classes continued to encounter the risks of travel and persecution. This the excitement of the year 1000 favoured. After the capture of Jerusalem by the Turk Togul Beg in 1076, pilgrims were systematically plundered and insulted, but it was not till the Turks seriously threatened the Byzantine Empire that a crusade was formally proposed. Gregory VII. had seen in this only an opportunity for extending the Papal power, but Urban II. was roused by the French hermit,. Peter of Picardy, into real enthusiasm, and at the general Council of Clermont (November 1095) invoked Western Europe to defend the Holy Land. First Crusade. In March 1096 popular expeditions, without discipline or equipment, began to beg and plunder their way to Jerusalem. The first, led by a Burgundian, Gualtier Sans-Avoir (Walter the Pennyless), was destroyed in Bulgaria; the second, under Peter the Hermit, was cut to pieces on the plain of Nice by the forces of the Sultan of Rum; the third, ished before Belgrade through the treachery of the Hungarian king; the fourth, amounting probably to 200,000 persons, after massacring the Jews in Mainz and other episcopal cities, was exterminated by the Hungarian army. The military crusade of 1096 divided itself into four expeditions, organised by the nobles without the help of any monarch. The first division, from the Rhine and N. Germany, was led by Godfrey de Bouillon, Duc de Brabant, and his brothers Eustace and Baldwin; the second, from Central France, Normandy, and Britain, was led by Hugh, Comte de Vermandois, Stephen, Comte de Chartres, Robert, Duc de Normandy, Robert, Comte de Flanders, and Eustace, Comte de Boulogne; the third, from S. Italy, was led by Prince Bohemond of Tarento and his cousin Tancred; the fourth, consisting of Provençals, Spaniards, and Lombards, was led by Raymond, Comte de Toulouse, with whom was Adhemar, the Pope's legate. After collisions between these armies and the Greeks of the Eastern Empire, and much fighting and intriguing at Constantinople, the Emperor Alexius obtained an oath of fealty from a majority of the leaders, and added a small contingent to their forces. On 20th June 1097 the crusaders captured Nicæa, and at Dorylæum decisively defeated Solyman, Sultan of Rûm. While the main body crossed the Taurus, Tancred and Baldwin penetrated Cilicia. The unjust claim of the latter to the capture of Tarsus led to his desertion of the general crusade and his Armenian expedition, which resulted in the establishment of the principality of Edessa. The crusaders took Antioch, 3d June 1098, but were besieged there by a host of Persian Turks under Kerboga, whom they defeated mainly through the enthusiasm which the clever imposture of the Marseille priest, Peter Barthelemy, had excited. Bohemond became ruler of the new Christian fence which visited them at Antioch, the army, led by Godprincipality of Antioch. Greatly reduced by famine and pestifrey, Raymond, &c., in 1099 marched S. to Jerusalem, now in the hands of the Fatimite Calif of Egypt. In spite of the gallant defence of Istahar, the crusaders, after a siege of five weeks, entered the Holy City, and massacred the Mussulman and Jewish inhabitants. On the 23d July 1099 the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem was founded, Godfrey of Bouillon becoming king under the title of Advocate or Defender of the Tomb of Christ. By Godfrey's victory at Ascalon (12th August 1099), by the energy of his successor, Baldwin I, in reducing Acre (1104), &c., and in founding the county of Tripoli (1109), and by reinforcements from Europe, the new kingdom was strengthened and extended.. (See BOUILLON, GODFREY DE.)- The Second Crusade, provoked by the reconquest of Edessa by the Emir of Mosul in 1144, was preached by St Bernard (q. v.), under the auspices of Pope Eugenius III., and undertaken by Louis VII. of France and the Emperor Konrad III. After the German army had been almost entirely destroyed by the Sultan of Iconium, Louis, who had been detained at Constantinople by the treacherous Manuel, joined the Emperor, and both reached Antioch with a fragment of their original forces. An abortive attack on Damascus in 1149 was the only fruit of this crusade. The conquests of Noureddin, Sultan of Damascus, the blunders of the weak Almeric | (who succeeded Baldwin III. at Jerusalem) in meddling with the affairs of Egypt, and the dissensions which, the election of Guy de Lusignan as king excited, prepared the way for the sudden rise of Saladin, who crushed the Christian army at Tiberias in 1187, seized Jerusalem, put Antioch under tribute, but failed to reduce Tyre, which Konrad of Montferrat defended. This led to the Third Crusade, marked by the first imposition by European monarchs of the Saladine tithe on rents and movables. The siege of Acre began in 1189: in 1190 the Emperor Friedrich Barbarossa led his army to Cilicia, where he died; the Duke of Swabia proceeding to Acre, which was regained in 1191, on the arrival of Philippe Auguste and Richard Coeur de Lion. Philippe having returned home, Richard won the victory of Azotus, and captured Jaffa and Cæsarea; but when, in 1192, Jerusalem was reached, the crusade was suddenly abandoned, Saladin agreeing to leave the coast-fortresses in the hands of the Christians, and to give pilgrims free access to the Holy Sepulchre. This truce expiring, and the crusade proclaimed by Pope Celestin III. failing to place Almeric of Lusignan in possession of the Holy City, Pope Innocent III., seconded by the preaching of the French priest Foulques, set in motion the Fourth Crusade in 1200. Its leaders, the Marquis Boniface of Mont ferrat and the Comtes de Flanders and Blois, arranged for the transport of their troops by the Venetian fleet, and joined the Doge Dandolo in storming Zara, a city subject to Hungary.. This having placed the crusaders in opposition to the wishes of the Pope, they agreed to espouse the cause of Alexius, son of the deposed Isaac Angelus, who promised that, if successful against his usurping uncle Alexius, he would unite the Eastern and Western Churches and assist the crusade. After the double siege of Constantinople (1203-5), which resulted first in the restoration of Isaac, next in the usurpation of Ducas Murzuphlos and the murder of Alexius, lastly in the coronation of Baldwin, Comte de Flanders, as first Latin Emperor of the East, and the division of the empire between Venice and the barons,. nothing further was heard of this crusade. Montferrat obtained Macedonia and the republic of Venice, Crete and three-eighths | of the Asiatic provinces.-The Fifth Crusade, to assist Jean de Brienne, titular King of Jerusalem, against the Sultan Saphadin, who had succeeded to Saladin's power, was agreed to at the Lateran Council of 1216, called by Innocent III. The preliminary campaign of Louis of Hungary came to nothing, and although the Germans under the Duke of Austria, assisted by the French following of Comtes Nevers and La Marche, and the English under the Earl of Salisbury, in: 1219 took Damietta after a siege of seventeen months, the folly of Cardinal Pelagius and the religious orders in declining the proffered cession of Jerusalem, led in 1229 to the disastrous advance on Cairo. In 1228 the Emperor Friedrich II. (q. v.) obtained a ten years' treaty, guaranteeing the occupation of Bethlehem, Nazareth, &c., and free access to the Holy City, where he was himself crowned despite the protest of the Patriarch. In 1238, the Christians having been driven out of Jerusalem, two distinct expeditions were organised, together known as the Sixth Crusade; the first, consisting of French knights led by Thibaud of Champagne and the Comte de Bretagne, was victorious at Ascalon, but routed at Gaza; the second, arranged at the Council of Northampton, was headed by Richard Earl of Cornwall, brother of Henry III., who in 1240 drew the courts of Damascus and Cairo into a treaty for the cession of Jerusalem and a large territory, and the release of Christian prisoners. The invasion. of Palestine by the Kharizmian tribes, expelled from Persia by the Mongols, and assisted by the Sultan of Egypt, crushed the Latin state; and when the Kharizmians were expelled by the Syrians and Egyptians the Christians did not regain their rights.. At the Council of Lyon (1245), accordingly, Pope Innocent IV. proclaimed a Seventh Crusade, in which Louis IX. of France, William Longsword of Salisbury, and others from France and England, set out from the rendezvous, Cyprus, in the year 1248.. Egypt was the scene of battle. Damietta fell easily, but the Mameluke forces of Nejmeddin, the Sultan, checked the invaders at Mansura, cut off their communication with the sea, and destroyed the crusading army, taking Louis prisoner in 1250. Louis, after being ransomed, spent four years in fortifying the coast-fortresses of Palestine, and then withdrew to France. In 1265-68, Bondocdar, the Mameluke usurper, attacked Palestine, almost defenceless from the feuds of the military orders.. The capture of Antioch after a series of victories led Clement IV. to proclaim the Eighth Crusade. This consisted of the fatal expedition of Louis IX. to Tunis (1270), and the energetic campaign of Prince Edward of England in the neighbourhood of Acre (then the capital) and Nazareth (1271– 72), which forced from Bondocdar a ten years' peace. The reign of Hugues de Lusignan was marked by the reduction of Tripoli and Acre, and the final destruction of the kingdom of Jerusalem (1291). The Popes sought in vain to raise another crusade. Enthusiasm for the cross had been killed by the growing sense of failure, and by disgust with the selfish dealing of Rome. Many theories have been framed of the religious, political, and intellectual effects of the C.. It would appear that aristocratic power was nowhere directly weakened by them, nor were the geographical outlines of religious and civil power altered. The burning of Constantinople was a serious blow to learning and culture. On the other hand,, the C. extended the commerce of the maritime republics, who often obtained, for transporting troops, grants of streets and privileges of trade in towns they would not otherwise have reached so soon.. To this increased importance of trade, which appeared in many transactions as the creditor of the aristocracy, and to the general quickening and enlargement of ideas which contact with new nations and territories always begets, it is reasonable to attribute to some extent the rise of municipal liberties, which,. especially in Germany, marked the 12th and 13th centuries. The chief histories of the C. are those of Mills, Michaud,, and Cox. Of the fourth and seventh C., contemporary accounts, of a dramatic and interesting kind, have been left by Villehardouin and Joinville. Information likewise abounds in the Byzantine historians of the time. See also Heeren, Sur l'Influence des Croisades. Crustacea, a class of Arthropoda or Higher Annulosa, distinguished primarily by the fact that in its members the head and chest segments are united to form one piece, known as the cephalothorax. The breathing is conducted by branchiæ or gills, but may also be effected by the general surface of the body. Two pairs of antennæ exist. The limbs are more than eight in number, and are borne by the segments of the abdomen, as well as by those of the thorax. The name C. is derived from the general presence of an outer crust or skin of calcareous or horny matter, forming an exoskeleton, and represented by the 'shell' of the crab or lobster. A Metamorphosis (q. v.), or series of changes similar to that seen in insects, &c., occurs in those forms during their development from the young to the adult state. As in the Crabs (q. v.), the young appear first as free-swimming, tailed organisms named Zoëe, and afterwards as Megalopa; assuming the perfect or tailless form in the next stage. The lower C. may pass, in some cases, through a very complicated metamorphosis, as exemplified in Barnacles (q. v.), &c. typical C. the body consists of twenty-one joints or segments— seven segments going to the head, chest, and abdomen respectively; and a general plan of structure or homology, as a rule, exists between the various segments of the body of a crustacean-such a homology being especially demonstrable in the Lobster (q. v.). These forms moult or cast their shells periodically; growth taking place in the body only when the body is soft and shell-less, and before the new shell is secreted. Reproduction of lost or injured limbs takes place in most C. The mouth is complicated, consisting of a series of jaws, which In The in higher C. gradually merge into the type of feet. A stomach, liver, and intestine exist. The heart may be wanting, but when present it lies dorsally, and consists of a tubular contractile organ provided with valves. Blood-vessels exist in higher forms. gills, when present, may be situated on the feet or enclosed within the body. The nervous system consists of a ganglionated chain of nerves lying vertically or on the floor of the body. The C. are divided and classified as follows. They inhabit both fresh and salt water, and some genera (e.g., Brine Shrimps, q. v.) inhabit brine solutions : 14. Amphipoda, Sandhoppers. 15. Stomapoda, Locust-shrimps. 16. Decapoda, Crabs, Lobsters, Shrimps, and Prawns. Crus'ta Petro'sa, a substance found covering the fangs of human teeth, and forming layers in some examples of more complicated teeth, as those of the elephant or horse. It is identical in structure with bone, except that in C. P. we find no Haversian canals. See BONE, TEETH. Crust of the Earth, the name given by geologists to that portion of our earth's surface accessible to human inquiry, and corresponding to the outer rind of our planet, into which, for several thousand feet, we have been able to penetrate. This C.' is made up of rocks, variously formed and arranged, and it is the province of geology to determine their relations, formation, and fossil contents. Cru'ys, Cornelis, a Dutch naval commander, born June 14, 1657, whom Peter the Great induced to join the Russian service. He superintended the making of dockyards, canals, and ships of war in Russia, which through his exertions first became a naval power. C. died in 1727. Cry'ing, Physiology of. This is a modification of the ordinary movements of respiration excited by a mental emotion. Though excited by a contrary emotion, it is nearly related physiologically to the act of laughing. Frequently an individual may be between a 'laugh' and a 'cry.' In both, the muscles of expiration are convulsed, and the breath is sent out in a series of jerks through the open glottis. (See LARYNX.) C., unlike yawning, coughing, sneezing, never originates in the respiratory system, but is always an expression of an emotional state, though it must be confessed that in states of great general weakness, C. may sometimes occur without any very definite emotional antecedent. Cry'olite, a native fluoride of sodium and aluminum (3NaF, AlF3), occurring in large deposits at Evigtok, Greenland, and also found in the Urals. It is a source of Aluminum (q. v.). Cryoph'orus (Gr. kryos, 'cold;' phero, ‘I carry'), a glass tube with a bulb at each end. The one bulb contains a little water, the other only water-vapour. When the latter is placed in a freezing liquid, the condensation of the vapour produces evaporation of the water, which, being accompanied by abstraction of heat, transforms the water into ice. Crypsor'chis (from krupto, I conceal; orchis, a testicle'), a condition sometimes met with, in which the testicles have not descended from the abdominal cavity into the scrotum. used as a church by the early Christians for safety during their services, and also as a place of sepulture. The largest C. does not generally extend beyond the limits of the choir or chancel and its aisles, and is often much smaller than these. It is carefully constructed and plainly finished. York Minster and Worcester and Rochester Cathedrals have each a C. older than the present Crypt. building. That under Canterbury Cathedral is the finest and largest in England: there is also a fine C. under Glasgow Cathedral. Cryptogam'ia, Cryptogams, or Cryptogamous Plants (Gr. kryptos, 'hidden,' and gamē, 'marriage'), the name applied to ferns, and their allies the horse-tails, club-mosses, and Marsileacea, mosses, liver-worts (Hepatica), lichens, fungi, Characeæ, and Alge, which do not produce flowers like the phanerogamous or flowering plants, and accordingly have no seeds, and therefore no Cotyledons (q. v); hence they are sometimes called Acotyledonous Plants (q.v.). They reproduce in various ways by spores or single cells without embryos. Many of the C. are parasitic, and the lower orders of them are entirely cellular; hence they are sometimes called Cellulares (q.`v.). Է write) is the art of communicating by signs or letters unintelliCryptog'raphy (Gr. kruptos, secret,' and graphein, ‘to gible except to the possessor of a key to the cryptograph. Ovid recommends love-letters to be written in milk, and afterVarious methods of C. were practised by the ancients. Thus wards to be made legible by applying soot. C. was very generally used by diplomatists in the 17th c., and is still employed, especially in telegraphic despatches. One method of Ĉ. is to write with metallic solutions, the characters being afterwards disclosed by the action of certain gases, but more commonly a different sign or letter is used for each letter of the alphabet-a system of C. known as chiffre, i.e., cipher. A cryptographic machine for transmitting secret correspondence was patented in 1860. In political diplomacy the art is less used than formerly. Crystall'ine Lens, the principal refractive structure of the eye. See EYE. Crystalline Rocks are highly metamorphosed rocks, in which the original texture has disappeared, and a new chemical arrangement, completely altering the mineralogical structure, has rendered the texture crystalline, and indistinguishable from that of igneous rocks. The chief of these are granite, syenite, diorite, and diallage rock; and this connecting of the igneous with the true metamorphic, and so with the aqueous, seems to warrant the conclusion that all rocks forming the crust of the earth were at one time aqueous, and have been and are being transformed, through the agency of pressure and heat, into rocks metamorphic and igneous, which, gradually worn away by atmospheric and other causes, form new aqueous rocks, thus completing the cycle of geological operations. Crystallography, the science which treats of crystalline forms and their classification. Most minerals assume, in virtue of their molecular constitution, a regular form, which is called a crystal-a form which is symmetrically arranged with respect to three or more definite axes. The most perfect crystals are obtained, not from natural minerals, but from the pure salt formed ! artificially in the chemical laboratory. The usual method is by cooling or evaporating a saturated solution of the salt, by which means the crystals gradually separate out, the size depending chiefly upon the rate of evaporation. Fusion and slow cooling may be employed in many cases.; for instance, in the case of sulphur and some metals; and very often substances such as iodine assume a crystalline form when passing directly from the gaseous to the solid state. Most crystals tend to split in particular directions, parallel to the axis of symmetry; and they very frequently have different co-efficients of elasticity, expansion, and conduc-joining a caravan, he travelled by Cabul and the Bamian Pass tivity along these different axes. Their optical properties also point out their structural character. With regard to their classification, crystals are usually arranged in six classes or systems, which are as follows:-1. The Monometric, Regular, or Cubic System, which has three mutually rectangu lar and equal axes. The most important forms are the cube, regular octohedron, and rhombic dodecahedron, which are met with, under various modifications, among the metals, in common salt, the alums, fluor-spar, diamond, garnet, spinede, &c. 2. The Dimetric, Square Prismatic, or Pyramidal System, which has also three rectangular axes, two of which only are equal. These forms occur in zireon, apophylite, yellow potassium, ferrocyanide, &c. 3. The Rhombohedral or Hexagonal System, which has four axes, three of which are equal, co-planar, and inclined to each other at angles of 60°, while the fourth and principal axis is perpendicular to them all. The principal forms are the regular six-sided prism, the rhombohedron, the scalenohedron, and are met with in ice, calcspar, beryl, quartz, arsenic, antimony, &c. 4. The Trimetric or Rhombic System, which has three rectangular but unequal axes. The perspective forms of these crystals are very like those of the dimetric system. They are found in sulphur crystallised at a low temperature, nitrate and sulphate of potassium, sulphate of barium. 5. The Monoclinic or Oblique Prismatic System, which has three equal or unequal axes, two at right angles to each other, while the third is oblique to the one and perpendicular to the other. Such crystals are exemplified by sulphur crystallised by fusion and cooling, by realgar, sulphate, carbonate and phosphate of sodium, borax, &c. 6. The Triclinic or Doubly Oblique Prismatic System, which has three oblique equal or unequal. axes, being therefore of great variety of form and exceedingly difficult of study. Such forms are assumed by sulphate of copper and nitrate of bismuth. Crystals which grow by equal additions all round retain the original form; if the additions take place unequally, but still following some definite law, a new but connected form arises. Thus a cube, which increases except at the solid angles, will become in time an octohedron, the old angles being now the central points of the new planes. These planes are called the secondary planes, and the modifications thus produced from the primary form are termed secondary forms. Any standard treatise on mineralogy, such as Haüy's and Dana's, contains information sufficient for a practical understanding of the subject, which is also very interesting from a geometrical point of view. Crystall'omancy, a once popular mode of divination by means of crystals, especially of the beryl. The diviner having in a low voice spoken the appropriate formulæ, handed the crystal to a youth or virgin, who read on it, or obtained by inquiry from spirits who appeared in it, what was desired to be known. Csa'ba, a market-town in the county of Békés, Hungary, and till 1846 the largest village in Europe. It then purchased for 800,000 florins the right to hold markets of its own. It is also the largest Protestant community in Hungary. C. has a trade in cattle, grain, hemp, and wine. Pop. 32,000. Csanad' Palo'ta, the name of a town in Hungary, on the Marös, with a pop. (1869) of 4013. It became the seat of a bishop in 1996. Cso'ma de Körös, Alexander (properly Körösi Csoma Sandor), a Hungarian traveller and orientalist, born at Körös (Transylvania) in 1790-according to some in 1798-was carefully educated, and devoted himself to philosophical studies at the college of Nagy-Enyed from 1812 to 1815, after which he studied Oriental languages in Germany. The dream of his youth had been to travel in Central Asia, and discover, if possible, the original seat of the Hungarian race. With this object he assiduously studied geography, ethnology, philology, and history at Göttingen, and afterwards at Temesvar, Agram, and Bucharest. 296 | In 1820 he travelled through Bulgaria and Rumili to the port of Enos, where he shipped for Egypt. Driven out of Alexandria by the plague, he set out on his travels to the East, passed by Aleppo and Mosul to Bagdad, and thence, assisted by the English consul, proceeded by Kermanshah and Hamadan to Teheran, where he arrived in October 1820. Here he remained four months, studying the Persian language. In March 1821 C., disguised as an Armenian, set out from Teheran, and after many adventures and hardships, arrived on the 18th November at Bokhara, whence, to Lahore in the Punjab. He subsequently spent some time travelling in Cashmere and Ladakh, making himself acquainted with the Thibetan tongue. The study of this language, hitherto almost unknown in Europe, although its literature deserves attention, engaged C. for several years, first with the Lama of Tsanskar, and afterwards in the Lamaist convent of Kanum on the Upper Sutlej. After mastering the language, C. repaired to Calcutta, where his labours and accomplishments met with a cordial acknowledgment from the Asiatic Society, who appointed him their librarian. While thus engaged he produced his two great works, A‘Grammar of the Thibetan Language and An Essay towards a Dictionary, Thibetan and English, both of which were published at Calcutta (1834) at the cost of the British Government. For the Asiatic Researches (vol. xx.) he also wrote a synopsis of the holy books of Lamaism. In further prosecution of his researches he resolved to visit Lhassa, the capital of Thibet; but while on the route he was seized with illness, and died at Darjeeling, in Sikkim, 11th April 1842. If C. failed to discover in Thibetan the origin of his native Magyar, he at least merits the credit of having been the first to bring that language and its literature within the scope of European scholarship. See a most interesting autobiographical sketch, read before the Royal Asiatic Society, Calcutta, 19th April 1834, and printed in vol. i. of the Journal of that Society. ! Csongrad', a market-town of Hungary, on a tongue of land opposite the mouth of the Korös, 35 miles N. of Szegedin. It has a trade in cattle, timber, and tobacco. Pop. 17,355. Ctenoi'dei, or Ctenoid' Fishes, the name proposed by Agassiz, not generally used in zoology, to indicate fishes such as the flounders, perches, &c., in which the scales have their hinder margins divided into 'comb-like' structures, or set with spines so as to resemble combs. New spines appear to be developed with the growth of the scales. 4 Ctenoph'ora, the highest order of the class Actinozoa, represented by delicate, free-swimming organisms, such as Cydippe (Beroë), &c., and distinguished by possessing ctenophores, or parallel rows of Cilia (q. v.) (vibratile filaments), arranged in comb-like plates. No coral structure is developed in these organisms. There are eight bands of ctenophores, arranged meridionally, in Cydippe, a familiar member of the group, which may be found in summer floating on the sea in the form of a clear, jelly-like ball of lemon shape. The mouth is. at the oral or lower pole of the body, and a stomach and complex system of canals exists, the latter representing a circulatory system. Actenocyst exists at the apical or upper pole of the body; this latter, consisting of a small cyst or sac, containing fluid and limy particles, and supplied with nerve filaments from a small nervous mass. This is the first definite appearance of a nervous system in the animal series as we proceed upwards. Cestum Veneris, or 'Venus' girdle,' another of the C., is a long band-like organism of 3 or 4 feet long, and at night shines in the sea with a phosphorescent flame. Ctesib'ius, a Greek mathematician of Alexandria, who flourished in the 3d c. B. C. He is famous for his mechanical inventions, such as the pump, the water-clock, the bent syphon, and for utilising, along with his pupil Hero Alexandrinus, the elasticity of the air as a motive power. Ctesiphon, a city in the southern part of Assyria, on the eastern bank of the Tigris. It rose into importance on the decay of Seleucia, and was the winter residence of the Parthian kings. The site of C. has been identified with the modern Al Madain, the two cities.' Cuba, 'the Pearl of the Antilles,' and the one colony of importance still belonging to Spain, is the largest and wealthiest island of the W. Indies, and is situated between the Mexican Gulf on the W., the Caribbean Sea on the S., and the Nicolas natural harbours. The island is traversed in the direction of its length by a range of hills, comparatively low in the W., but gradually rising towards the E. Above Trinidad, on the S. coast, the rugged mountain masses are not without grandeur, while the rare beauty of the coast and inland scenery is unsurpassed by that of the most renowned of the Mediterranean lands. The western department, which is the smallest, is for the most part level, and contains almost all the great sugar factories and tobacco plantations, which constitute the enormous wealth of the island. In the central department the population is massed in the capital and in a few small towns; the rural districts are chiefly forests and unpeopled savannahs. The eastern department, where the first colonists settled, was previously well cultivated in certain districts. Much of the interior, however, was left in a state of nature, and many tracts are still described as 'waste.' The soil is so fertile that when neglected for a short time. it becomes rapidly overrun with vegetation. The principal productions are sugar, tobacco, coffee, rice, and cotton. The sugar cultivation is the most profitable; the tobacco and coffee culture has within recent years been much neglected. Many of the most flourishing coffee plantations have been converted into sugar estates. Since the civil war and the abolition of slave-labour in America, that country, which previously grew its own sugar, has become dependent upon C. for that article. Of the whole amount of sugar annually produced in C., 75 per cent. is exported to the United States, and only 15 per cent. to Spain. The value of the sugar.exported in 1872 was over £20,000,000. Large quantities of honey, rum, wax, tobacco, and cigars are also exported from Havana. The imports of C. consist principally of rice, olive oil, flour, jerked beef, shooks (boards and staves for hogsheads and sugar-boxes), lard, and coals. Over 1000 miles of railway are in operation in the W. division. i Cubag'ua, an island between Venezuela and Margarita, in the Caribbean Sea. It is about 9 miles long, and has considerable pearl-fisheries. C. was discovered by Columbus in 1498. Cube, a solid, all of whose six sides are squares, which are necessarily all equal. The volume is found by multiplying the area of the base by the height, i.e., by multiplying the edge twice Hence we have the expression to C. a in succession by itself. given number, the C. of a being a x a × a = a3. To extract the C.-root of a number is to find that number which when cubed will produce the original number. The C.-root of a3 is a. Cu'bebs, or Cubeb Pepper, the fruit of Piper Cubeba (Cubeba officinalis of other botanists), a climbing shrub of Java and other Indian islands, belonging to the Piperacea. C. are about the size of black pepper, globular, wrinkled, and supported on a stalk. They have a peculiar odour and a warm taste like that of Camphor (q. v.). C. are distinguished from pepper by their lighter colour and the stalks-hence often called stalked pepper. They contain a volatile oil (oil of C.), С15H2 constituting about 10 per cent. of C.; also a resin and a crystalline principle, cubebin, very analogous to piperin, found in pepper. C. are used in medicine to arrest mucous discharges, especially those of the Urethra (q.v). African C. is the fruit of Piper Clusii. 15 24, Cubic Equa'tion, an equation involving the cube of the unknown quantity with either, neither, or both of the lower powers. The most general form can be reduced to the form x3 + ax + b = 0; but the further reduction by Cardan's rule, given in all the more advanced text-books of algebra, evolves a result which is the sum of two impossible quantities, except when two of the roots are impossible or equal. Accordingly, when the three roots are possible and different, ordinary algebraic methods fail, and recourse must be had to trigonometry for the general solution; but in this instance the roots are usually easily obtained by mere inspection. For details the reader is referred to Todhunter's Theory of Equations. Cub'ical Nitre, or Chili Saltpetre, is the nitrate of soda (NaNO3), and is imported in large quantities from Chili and Peru, as a manure, and for the manufacture of gunpowder and nitric acid. See SODIUM. Cubit (Lat. cubitus), an ancient linear measure, being the length of the arm from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger. The Hebrew C. has been variously estimated from 19 to 22 inches; the Roman C. was about 171 inches, but it is generally taken as equivalent to a foot and a half. History.-C. was discovered by Columbus,. 28th October:1492, and was occupied by the Spaniards under Diego Velasquez in The native Indians were rooted out about 1560. In 15II. 1584 Havana was fortified, and in 1777 the government of the island was reconstituted under a Captain-General. From 1773 Havana continued to be the centre of the slave-trade of the whole of Spanish America. The island suffered from insurrections of the slaves in 1844 and 1848. Though nominally abolished by law, slavery is still a firmly-rooted institution. For this and for other reasons the conquest or purchase of the island has engaged attention within recent years in America. Lopez landed on the island at the head of an American filibustering expedition in 1851, but was captured and executed. In 1868 broke out the insurrection which still continues to smoulder. This movement had its origin in the hostile, relations and conflicting interests of the two great classes of the free population-the Peninsulars or Spanish immigrants, and the Creoles or native Cubans. The Peninsulars maintain a volunteer force of 60,000 men throughout the island, and practically overrule the Captain-General and the authorities. The. Cubans are anxious for the abolition of slavery; the Peninsulars, embracing all the great sugar-planters, are determined to maintain slavery by force..of a greyish colour, the breast In 1870 the Moreb law was promulgated, declaring every slave free on reaching the age of sixty, and decreeing the liberty of all children of slaves born after that date. This law, which has hitherto remained a dead letter, has done much morally to strengthen the position of the insurgent Cubans. It is estimated that from 1868 to 1873 the struggle in C. has cost 150,000 lives. See the works of A. Gallenga (Lond. 1873) and Townshend (Lond. 1875). Cuboid Bone, one of the bones forming the arch of the foot. It is placed on the outer side of the foot, in front of the os calcis, and behind the fourth and fifth metatarsal bones. Its name indicates its shape. See Fooт, Tarsus. Cuck'ing-Stool. See DUCKIng-Stool. Cuckoo (Cuculus), a genus of Scansorial birds, of the family Cuculide, distinguished by the compressed bill, by the ridge of the arched upper mandible, by the membranous nostrils, by the long and pointed wings, and by the short tarsi, which are partly clothed with feathers. The outer toe can be directed backwards or forwards at will. 113 These birds inhabit the Old World exclusively, and their name is derived from their song-note. The common C. (Cuculus canorus) averages a small pigeon in size. It is Cuckoo. It being marked with brownish-black, 297 |