eastern window in England, consisting of nine richly-coloured lights. It was founded by William Rufus, and dedicated by Henry I. in III. C. has manufactures of cotton, woollens, linen, leather, iron, and hardware. It has also valuable salmon-fisheries. Silloth (q. v.) is its port. It returns two members to Parliament. Pop. (1871) 31,049. C. was probably a British town before the Roman invasion, and is thought to be the site of the Roman sation Lugovallum. But it first becomes historical in the poems of the Welsh bards, where it appears as Caer Lliwellydd, of which the modern name is a corruption. It was the residence of the British Kings of Cumbria, and was sacked by the Angles of Northumbria about 680. In the 11th c. it began to emerge from obscurity, and subsequently, till the union of England and Scotland, it continued, as a fortress, to play a conspicuous part in Border history. In 1745 it readily surrendered to Prince Charles Stuart, but it was recaptured by the Duke of Cumberland, who summarily executed many of the citizens. In the vicinity of C. have been found many Roman antiquities, mainly coins, altars, and brass vases.

Carlisle, a flourishing town of Pennsylvania, 125 miles W. of Philadelphia, and 18 S. W. of Harrisburg by railway. It lies in the Great Limestone Valley, between the Kittatinny and South Mountains, is the seat of a Methodist College (Dickinson's), and has increasing manufactures, chiefly of machinery. Pop. (1870) 6650.

Carlisle, Frederick Howard, Earl of, was born 28th May 1748, and succeeded to the earldom at the age of ten. His mother, Isabella Byron, was a sister of the famous admiral and navigator. C. was educated at Eton and Oxford. In 1780 he was appointed Viceroy of Ireland, and was for a time an opponent of Pitt in Parliament, but changed his politics after the outbreak of the French Revolution. He died 4th September 1825. C. was an able politician, but is best known by his contributions to literature, which were published in a collective form in 1801 under the title of Tragedies and Poems, and gave occasion to a recklessly bitter note in Byron's English Bards and Scotch Reviewers.-George William Frederick Howard, Earl of C., son of the preceding, was born April 18, 1802, and educated at Eton and Oxford, where he won the Chancellor and Newdegate prizes for Latin and English verse. C. entered Parliament as a Liberal, sitting first for Morpeth, and subsequently for the West Riding of Yorkshire. Under the administrations of Lord Melbourne, Lord John Russell, and Lord Palmerston, he held various offices, including those of Chief Secretary for Ireland, Chief Commissioner of Woods and Forests, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, and Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. He died 5th December 1864. He was a man of literary taste and culture. Besides delivering lectures on America and on the writings of Pope, &c., he wrote a Diary in Turkish and Greek Waters (1854), and a book on Prophecy.

Carlo Alberto Amede'o, King of Sardinia, born 2d October 1798, a son of Prince Carlo Emanuele of Savoy-Carignan, who died in 1800. C., connected through his mother with the house of Saxony, married in 1817 Maria Theresa, daughter of Ferdinand of Tuscany, and on the Piedmontese revolution of 1821, became for a short time Regent of Sardinia, introducing a constitutional government, which was repudiated by Carlo Felice, the successor of Vittorio Emanuele on the throne. After acting for two years as Viceroy of Sardinia, C. succeeded, his title having been previously recognised by the Congress of Vienna. At first, Austrian influence and the fear of Carbonarism, thwarted the essentially Liberal intentions of the new King, but after the accession of Pio Nono, the army was nationalised, the press laws modified, and, when the year of revolutions came, C. was able to assist Lombardy against the Austrians with a large and enthusiastic army. army. The superior numbers under Radetzky were victorious at Villafranca, Milan, and Novara (1849), and C., abdicating in favour of his son, Vittorio Emanuele II., retired to Oporto, where he died, 28th July 1849. C. patronised the fine

arts.

Carlo Emanuele I., called 'the Great,' Duke of Savoy, born at Rivoli, 12th January 1562, succeeded his father, Filiberto Emanuele (Iron-head), and married in 1585 Catherine, the youngest daughter of Philip of Spain. His favourite policy was to gain a footing in Provence and Saluzzo by playing the part of

a Catholic liberator; he even laid claim to the French crown on the death of Henri III., whose cousin he was; but in 1597 the Protestant leaders, Lesdiguières and La Valette, forced him to withdraw from Provence. Compelled in 1601 to give up several districts in the department of Ain, and unsuccessful in his attacks on Geneva, C. at last became the ally of France, and for several years was in the field against the Spanish power in N. Italy, where he obtained the territory of Montferrat. C. was put forward by the Protestant Union as a candidate for the empire at the death of Matthias. The league against the action of Spain against the Protestants of Valtellina, a war with Geneva about the territory of Zuccarello, and the invasion by Louis XIII. of Savoy and Piedmont, fill up the rest of C.'s life. He died at Savillan, 26th July 1630, leaving a military reputation which was not founded on military success.

Carlos, Don, Infante of Spain, born July 8, 1545, at Valladolid, was the son of Philip II. by his first wife, Maria of Portugal. Originally declared the King's heir, he was afterwards passed over for his cousin Rudolfo, and in consequence is supposed to have entered into a plot against the King and his favourite, the Duke of Alva. At all events, on the declaration of a priest who divulged what had been said in confession (Christmas Eve, 1567), he was found guilty of conspiring against the King's life, and imprisoned. He died July 24, 1568. It was suspected at the time that he had been poisoned or strangled, but of this there is no proof. His fate has been made the subject of dramas by Montalvan (Spanish), Alfieri (Italian), Schiller (German), and Russell (English). See Prescott's History of the Reign of Philip the Second (Bost. 1856), and Gachard's Don C. et Philippe II. (Bruss. 1863), which contains a complete collection of the original documents.

In 1844

Carlos de Bourbon, Don Maria Isidor, born March 29, 1788, was the second son of Charles IV. of Spain, and brother of Ferdinand VII., who obtained the Spanish throne after the expulsion of the French. He is solely notable for his attempts to gain the throne, his pretensions to which were blasted by the birth of a daughter (the late Queen Isabella) to Ferdinand, and the abrogation of the Salique law, excluding females from the throne. After Ferdinand's death, his claims, although supported by Dom Miguel in Portugal, were not acknowledged by the European powers, and, after he had made an attempt to excite an insurrection, were rejected by the constituent Cortes. he abdicated in favour of Don C., his eldest son, and went to live at Trieste, where he died, March 10, 1855.-Don Carlos, the younger, better known as the Count de Montemolin, born January 31, 1818, endeavoured, but also in vain, to obtain the throne, and, in 1860, being arrested in France, signed a renunciation of his claims. He died January 14, 1861.-The third Carlist pretender, also calling himself Don Carlos, is the nephew of the Count de Montemolin, being the son of his brother Juan, and was born in 1848. After the revolution which expelled Queen Isabella in 1868, Carlist risings took place in various parts of Spain, and from 1871 to 1875 Don C. was established in the Basque Provinces. defeats upon the forces, Republican and Alphonsist, opposed to His troops inflicted several them, but were subsequently completely crushed. The surrender of Estella (February 1876) compelled Don C. to flee into France, and the miserable struggle is now over, at least for a time.

Carlos, San, a town of Venezuela, S. America, on the Aguare, a tributary of the Apure, about 70 miles S.S.É. of Valencia. The rearing of cattle and the cultivation of indigo, cotton, and coffee are the principal industries. The prosperity of this town was seriously damaged by the wars of independence; but it has more than recovered its former wealth and importance. Pop. (1873) 10,420.

Car'lovicz, or Karlovitz, a town in the military frontier of the Servian Banat, Austrian Empire, on the right bank of the Danube, 8 miles S.S.E. of Peterwardein. It is the seat of the patriarch and metropolitan of the non-united Greeks,' has a theological school belonging to that sect, and a gymnasium. Pop. (1869) 4419. From the vineyards on the mountains in the vicinity is obtained a large supply of a strong red wine which is classed with the choicest vintages of Hungary. At C. was concluded, 26th January 1699, a treaty of peace between Turkey and the Allies, Germany, Russia, Poland, and Venice, by which

Hungary was finally secured to Austria. In 1848-49, C. was the centre of the Servian revolt against the leadership and domination of Hungary.

Carlovingian or Carolingian Dynasty, a Latinised spelling of the name of the second German dynasty that ruled in France. See KAROLINGS.

Car'low, an inland county of Ireland, province of Leinster; area, 346 sq. miles; pop. (1871) 51,650, being a decrease of 5487 since 1861. It is triangular in shape, with the vertex towards the S., and is hilly on its E. and W. borders, but the greater part is level and fertile. The chief rivers are the Slaney and the Barrow. In 1873 there were 79,416 acres under grain crops; potatoes and turnips were largely cultivated; and about a third was in meadow and clover. There are many flour-mills along the Barrow, and malting and distilling are important industries. Flour, oatmeal, and dairy produce are exported, and a good deal of bacon is cured for the home market. C. returns two county members to Parliament. There are cromlechs near C. and Hacketstown on the Dereen.

Carlow, the capital of the county of C., on the left bank of the Barrow, where it is joined by the Burren, 56 miles S. W. of Dublin by rail. The Irish form of the name is Cetherloch, pronounced Caherlough (' quadruple lake'), there being a tradition that the Barrow here at one time formed four lakes; and early English writers spell it Catherlogh. C. consists mainly of two streets, and the suburb of Graigue in Queen's County. It has a Roman Catholic cathedral, and a college for the education of Roman Catholics, founded in 1789, and enlarged in 1828. There are large grinding-mills both on the Barrow and the Burren, and an extensive trade is carried on in butter and agricultural produce. The castle, founded by the De Lacys about the close of the 12th c., remained in an almost complete state till 1814, when an attempt was made to reduce the thickness of the walls and to enlarge the windows by gunpowder, and the greater part was destroyed. Pop. of C. proper (1871), 6526; of portion in Queen's County, 1316; total, 7842. The town returns one member to Parliament.

Carlsbad. See KAISER-Karlsbad.

Carludovica, a genus of plants of the natural order Pandanacea. The young unexpanded leaves of C. palmata furnish the material out of which Panama hats are made. One of these hats sometimes takes three months to make, and costs as much as £30. Carluke', a burgh in the upper ward of Lanarkshire, near the right bank of the Clyde, 19 miles E. by S. from Glasgow, and a station on the Caledonian Railway. The district is rich in iron and coal. About a mile from the town are the large works of the Shotts Iron Company. C. is the birthplace of General Roy, the famous military antiquary. Pop. (1871) 3423. Many Roman relics have been found in the vicinity.

Carlyle, Alexander, D.D. (born January 26, 1722; died August 25, 1805), for fifty-seven years minister of the parish of Inveresk (Musselburgh), is chiefly known as the contemporary and friend of Hume, Home, and Robertson, and as one of the leaders of the Moderate party in the Church of Scotland. He was a man of singularly fine presence, being popularly known as Jupiter C., and described by Sir Walter Scott as the grandest demigod I ever saw.' His autobiography, containing Memorials of the Men and Events of his Time, was published in 1860 under the editorship of Mr (now Dr) John Hill Burton. It is admitted to be one of the best books of the autobiographical kind, and its shrewd, lively sketches of the men and manners of the period in which he lived are invaluable for historical purposes.

Carlyle, Thomas, the 'censor of the age,' and one of the greatest forces in British literature, is the eldest son of a shrewd Scotsman, who had a farm near the village of Ecclefechan, in the parish of Hoddom, Dumfriesshire. There C. was born, There C. was born, December 4, 1795. After receiving instruction at Ecclefechan

In

parish school and the burgh school of Annan, C. proceeded in 1810 to the University of Edinburgh, with the intention, afterwards abandoned, of studying for the ministry of the Scotch Church. He applied himself to classics, and still more to mathematics and general literature, with such energy that he injured his very robust health. robust health. After finishing the Arts curriculum, he was appointed mathematical teacher in the burgh school of Annan, a post which he held for two years, when he obtained a similar situation in the burgh school of Kirkcaldy. His stay there is chiefly notable for his making the intimate acquaintance of Edward Irving, a schoolfellow at Annan, and then master of an adventure school in Kirkcaldy. In the end of 1818, C. left Kirkcaldy for Edinburgh, where he read hard for three years, and contributed articles to Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopædia. In 1821 C, became tutor to Charles Buller. 1823 he sent to the London Magazine the first part of his Life of Schiller; and in 1824 produced a translation of two very dissimilar works, Legendre's Astronomy and Goethe's Wilhelm Meister, the latter of which was severely treated by several critics, including De Quincey and Jeffrey. Next year his Schiller appeared in a complete form. For some time afterwards, C. occupied himself with translating German romances. In 1826 he married Miss Jane Welsh, a lineal descendant of John Knox, and two years later retired to the farm of Craigenputtoch, his wife's property, about 15 miles N.W. of Dumfries, and described by him in a There he letter to Goethe as the 'loneliest nook in Britain. contributed to various reviews that celebrated series of articles subsequently republished under the title of Miscellanies, on French, and still more on German, authors, such as Goethe, Novalis, Heyne, Schiller, Werner, and Richter (which may be said to have opened for most Englishmen the treasury of German literature); and there he also produced his first great and purely original work, Sartor Resartus, which, after being rejected by several London publishers, appeared, in 1833-34, in Fraser's Magazine. C. now removed to London, where he still resides. From this date Of his reputation was established, and has since steadily grown. the works he has produced since then, we can only enumerate the chief-The French Revolution (1837); Chartism (1839); Past and Present (1843); and Latter-Day Pamphlets (1850), assailing in terms of unmeasured contempt the corruptions, as he deems them, of British society and politics; Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches (1845), the work that first won for him the admiration and confidence of the entire English public, and in which his extraordinary power of taking trouble with a subject was first brought home to the English mind; Life of John Sterling (1851); History of Friedrich II. of Prussia, called Frederick the Great (1858-65), in which the qualities visible in his Cromwell once more appear, but in a far more striking and powerful way; and, in 1875, Early Kings of Norway, with Portraits of John Knox, which had previously appeared in Fraser's Magazine. Several editions of his works have been published, of which that by Chapman & Hall (1869) is the latest and best. Between 1837 and 1840, C. also delivered in London four series of lectures on German literature, on the history of literature, on the revolutions of modern Europe, and on heroes and hero-worship, which made a powerful sensation at the time they were delivered. According to Leigh Hunt, 'it was as if some Puritan had come to life again, liberalised by German philosophy and his own intense reflections and experience,' In the session of 1865-66, C. was elected Lord Rector of Edinburgh University by the students, and on April 2d of the latter year delivered a characteristic installation address. The same year his wife died, and he has written but little since. On his eightieth birthday, C. was presented with an address, signed by upwards of a hundred men of letters and savants, and a medal was struck in honour of the occasion. Of the value of C.'s opinions on life, society, and politics, it is not yet time to speak. Whatever may be the final verdict of history, one thing will always be gratefully allowed, that he breathed into literature a nobler, purer, and sterner spirit than ever animated it before. The moral influence of his writings has been incalculably great, and will continue to operate beneficially long after other thoughts than C.'s have acquired dominion over the mind of the nation. Nor can we easily imagine an age so far sunk in triviality and impotence that it will be indifferent to the picturesque creations of an imagination unsurpassed in this century, or to a humour which combines the riot of Rabelais with the grimness of Knox.

JOHN AITKEN C., M.D., LL.D., a younger brother of Thomas

C., was born at Ecclefechan, July 7, 1801. He is known chiefly as the author of a very fine translation of Dante's Inferno. He has also written articles for magazines, none of which, however, have as yet been republished.

Carmagnola, a town in the province of Turin, N. Italy, near the Po, 15 miles S. by E. of Turin. It has an active trade in silk, flax, hemp, corn, and cattle, and manufactures of jewellery. Pop. 12,519. __ C. is the birthplace of the famous Venetian general, Francesco Bussone.

Car'magnole, a notorious song during the French Revolution, which was accompanied by a dance to the refrain :

Du canon!

It was named after the town Carmagnola, in Piedmont, because Savoyard boys frequently went about with it. The word was also applied to a kind of jacket, the wearing of which was considered patriotic, and to the high-flown reports about the achievements of the French army which were issued.

Car'mel (Heb. 'a garden '). 1. A mountain ridge in Palestine, which branches off from the N. end of the mountains of Samaria, runs N. W. between the plains of Sharon and of Esdraelon, and the N.W. extremity of which projects far into the sea, forming a bold promontory, the only one along the whole coast of Palestine. Its length is about 16 miles, and its highest point 1750 feet above the sea. 2. A town in the mountains of Judah, the residence of Nabal (1 Sam. xxv.).

Carmel, Knights of Mount, an order of knights, consisting of a hundred French gentlemen, each of whom could prove at least four descents of nobility by both father and mother. It was instituted by Henri, King of France and Navarre, was confirmed by a bull of Pope Paul V. in 1607, and was incorporated with the order of the Knights of St Lazarus of Jerusalem. The specialty of the Knights of Mount C. was personal attendance on the king during war.

Car'melites, an order of monks, founded on Mount Carmel by Berthold, Count of Limoges, about 1156. They were driven from the place of their institution by the Saracens, and became a mendicant order in 1247, when Simon Stoch was their general. They were subsequently divided into several branches, one of which is the barefooted C. The order of C. nuns was instituted in 1452. Both still exist in Roman Catholic countries. Carmin'atives are medicines that remove flatulency. They are so called because they were supposed to act like a charm (carmen). All warm and stimulating aromatics are C.

Car'mine, a very beautiful brilliant scarlet colour, consisting of carminic acid, the colouring matter contained in the cochineal insect (Coccus cacti). C. is soluble in water, and is of great value as a painter's colour, chiefly for miniature painting and as a water-colour. It is also employed in the dyeing of wool when a brighter colour than can be produced even by aniline dyes is desired. C. is ordinarily prepared by boiling cochineal with carbonate of potash, to which after boiling a proportion of alum is added. In a short time the remains of the cochineal fall to the bottom, and the clear liquid is again put over the fire with a proportion of isinglass dissolved in a large quantity of water. The vessel is removed from the fire at the point of boiling and briskly stirred, after which the C. begins to deposit, which it does completely in about twenty minutes. When drained and dried it is ready for use. C.-lake is a compound of C. and alumina, and is the form in which the colour is chiefly used for water-colours. Madder-C. is a scarlet lake prepared from madder root. The rouge which is used on the stage and elsewhere ought to owe its tint to C.

Car'möe, or Kar'moe, an island on the W. coast of Norway, at the entrance of the Bukke Fiord, 20 miles N. W. of Stavanger. It is 21 miles long and 5 broad, and has about 6400 inhabitants, chiefly engaged in fishing and in cattle-rearing.

Carmona, a town of Spain, province of Seville, on a mountain ridge overlooking a fertile, olive-clad plain, about 20 miles N. E. of Seville. The oriental walls and castle, with the old Gothic church, give it a most picturesque appearance: the

Carnar'ia, Cuvier's name given to an order of mammalia including the Fera or beasts of prey of Linnæus (excepting the Marsupials or pouched mammals), and also the Cheiroptera or bats, which Linnæus placed with man and monkeys in his order Primates. Primates. Cuvier's division thus included the modern orders Carnivora, Insectivora, and Cheiroptera, and the characters of these groups were derived from the nails or claws of the toes, the absence of opposable thumbs, and the presence of the three kinds of teeth; the dentition, however, varying according to the nature of the food.

Carnarvon, Henry Howard Molyneux Herbert, Earl of, eldest son of the third Earl of C., who had a reputation both as a scholar and a poet, was born in London, June 24, 1831. Educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated in 1852 as a first-class in classics, C. (who represents a younger branch of the Pembroke family) succeeded to the title in his minority. He entered the House of Lords as a Conservative, was complimented on his first speech by Lord Derby, and in 1858 became Under-Secretary for the Colonies, in which post he showed considerable business ability. Retiring from office with his party, he travelled Mount Lebanon. in the East, and in 1860 published a work on The Druses of Mount Lebanon. He joined Lord Derby's third administration the confederation of the British N. American colonies, which has in 1866 as Colonial Secretary, and as such prepared the plan for difference of opinion from his leading colleagues on the subject had such good results. He resigned, however, on account of a of parliamentary reform in 1867, but joined, in his former capacity, Mr Disraeli's second administration in the beginning of 1874. His second occupancy of this office has been marked by the annexation of the Fiji Islands to the British Empire, and the British colonies in S. Africa. No English statesman enjoys the preparation of an elaborate scheme for the confederation of a greater measure of public confidence and goodwill.

Carnatic (properly Carnataka, or Carnata, i.e., blackland), the former name of the S. part of the Indian peninsula, extending from Cape Comorin to the river Kistna, and lying between the Coromandel and Malabar coasts.

Carna'tion, one of the finest of garden flowers, a variety of Dianthus Caryophyllus, the clove pink. It has long been a favourite plant, and is now found in numerous varieties, such as Flake C., Bizarre C., Picotees, &c. The Spanish C. is Poinciana pulcherrima.

Carnations (Lat. caro, flesh'), in painting, are the parts of a picture in which the nude form appears, and in which the texture and glow of the body is sought to be realised by flesh-tints. Among the old masters the practice of painting from the nude was more general than in later times, and the C. of the works of the great colourists of the Venetian school are consequently more brilliant and truthful than those of modern artists.

Carne'ades, a Greek philosopher, born at Cyrene, B. C. 213, Academic, to whose chair he succeeded. was the pupil of Diogenes the Stoic, and of Hegesippus the After his embassy to

Rome, B.C. 155, where his sceptical theory of justice provoked the anger of Cato the Censor, he taught the new academy at Athens, where he died at the age of ninety. of ninety. As his predecessor Arcesilaus had opposed Zeno, so C. opposed to the stoic Chrysippus the doctrine of the acatelepsy, or incomprehensibility of

all things in themselves. This meant that perception cannot be shown to resemble the object perceived in either primary or secondary qualities, but is only related to it as its effect upon the nervous system of man. From this C. rashly inferred the uncertainty of human knowledge, practical certainty being dependent on uniformities of co-existence and succession, not on metaphysical resemblances (Ritter & Preller, Hist. Phil.). C. is called by Cicero acerrimus et copiosissimus.'

Carnelian (Lat. caro, 'flesh '), a variety of chalcedony, semitransparent, coloured red, brown, or yellow by oxide of iron, and sometimes white. The rich Oriental variety is called Sard (q. v.). C. is an abundant mineral, and is formed into seals, brooches, and other personal ornaments.

Carnioʻla (Ger. Krain), a crown-land of the Austrian Empire: area, 3860 sq. miles; pop. (1869) 466,334. The surface is rugged and mountainous, the Carnic Alps, with their ramifications, occupying that portion N. of the Save, and the Julian or Krainer Alps the central and southern parts. The highest point is the Terglow, 9397 feet, on which is the solitary glacier of C. The Save is the principal river. The chief productions of the soil are rye, barley, oats, potatoes, flax, and in some places maize and vines; while the minerals are iron, copper, lead, coal, marble, and especially cinnabar, the quicksilver mines of Idria having been long famous. There are manufactures of linen, leather, lace, pottery, &c., and a considerable trade in timber and firewood. The Lake of Zirknitz (q. v.), the quicksilver mines, and the grottoes of Adelsberg, are 'the three sights of C.' Laybach is the capital.

Like Carinthia, the name C. points to a primitive Celtic population from whom the country must have received its name, 'the craggy' or 'the rugged.' Some time after the fall of the Roman Empire it appears in the possession of a Slavic race, from whom it was conquered by Charlemagne, who gave it to the Dukes of Friuli. After various changes it finally passed, in the 13th and 14th centuries, into the possession of the Hapsburgs, and has ever since formed part of the Austrian Empire.

stration.

a Terrorist, C. was elected to the Directory, where perhaps the hostility of Barras marred the success of his military adminiThe revolution which Augereau and Barras accom plished in the interests of Bonaparte drove C. to Germany. He returned in 1799 as Minister of War under the First Consul, but soon retired to the country, where he composed his celebrated Traité de la Défense des Places. He was again called to the Tribune, in which he opposed the gradual foundation of the Empire, and once more retired to the cultivation of his favourite mathematical and mechanical science. In 1814 he offered himself to the falling Bonaparte, and was intrusted with the defence of Antwerp against the Allies; and during the 'Hundred Days' he acted as Minister of the Interior, believing in the possibility of a republic. By the influence of the Emperor Alexander he was allowed to retire to Warsaw, and then to Magdeburg, where he died, 2d August 1823. C.'s merits as an engineer and a mathematician have been questioned, but not his austere loyalty to republican principles. See Arago's Biographie de C. (1850), and Mémoires of C., edited by his son (2 vols. 1861-64).

'locusts

>

Car'ob, Algaroba, or Locust-Tree (Ceratonia Siliqua), a tree of the natural order Leguminosa, sub-order Casalpinica), a native of the Mediterranean region, the pods of which are much used by the Arabs and poorer inhabitants of that region. They are also given to horses, and of late years they have been imported into Britain for that purpose under the name of Locust Beans or St John's Bread, from the idea that they were the on which, in addition to wild honey, St John lived during his wanderings in the wilderness. Undoubtedly, however, the food of the apostle was the insect of the same name, which to this day forms a large portion of the food of the inhabitants of the same region. It is also believed-though on somewhat fanciful grounds-that they formed the 'husks' of which the Prodigal Son of the New Testament would fain have filled his belly' after he had wasted his substance with riotous The living.' Some trees will yield as much as 800 or 900 lbs. wood is also hard, and valued as a timber; and the bark and leaves are used for tanning. The Locust-Tree of America (q. v.) belongs to another genus altogether.

Carolina Allspice. See CALYCANTHUS.

Carolina, North ('the Old North State '), is one of the ori

Carniv'ora, an order of mammalia, represented by such animals as lions, tigers, dogs, wolves, bears, seals, hyenas, civets, weasels, &c., &c., and distinguished by possessing two sets of teeth, consisting of the three kinds found in a perfect dentition. The incisors are generally six in each jaw, save in some seals; the canine teeth always number two in each jaw, and are very large and prominent; whilst the præmolars and molars usually possess cutting edges-although in some animals (e.g., bears) which feed on vegetable as well as on carnivorous matter, the molars may be blunted or tuberculate. The clavicles are rudimentary or wanting. The toes possess sharp claws; the teats are abdominal, and the Placenta (q. v.) is deciThe C. are divided into the Pinnigrada (q. v.) (seals), Plantigrada (q. v.) (bears, racoons, badgers, &c.), and the Digitigrada (q. v.) (lions, tigers, dogs, &c., &c.).

duate and zonary.

Carʼnot, Lazare Nicolas Marguerite, born at Nolay, a small village in Burgundy, 13th May 1753, studied at Paris and the military school of Mezières for the engineer service, in which, in 1784, he obtained a captaincy. His first important mathematical work, an Essai sur les Machines en Générale, appeared in 1786. Elected to the Legislative Assembly in 1791, he spoke chiefly on military affairs. In the National Assembly, after the deposition of the King, C. rose in importance, and his energy on the frontiers in 1793 made him practically the leader of the Committee of Public Safety. He organised the fourteen armies which destroyed the first coalition, and conquered the Low Countries. After narrowly escaping condemnation as

Virginia, on the S. by S. Carolina and Georgia, and on the W. by Tennessee, and it lies between 33° 53′ and 36° 30' N. lat. Its greatest breadth is 180 miles, and from Cape Hatteras, on the Atlantic, to its western limit it is 490 miles in length, the area The soil is extremely poor. Inland being 50,704 sq. miles.

for 80 miles it is sand and swamp. Part of the Great Dismal Swamp is on the N. Behind this tract the land rises into wooded hills onward to the Appalachian ranges, crowned with Mount Buckley, 6775 feet, the highest point E. of the Mississippi. The mountain region, having Asheville, Buncombe county, for a centre, has a very healthful and genial climate.

On the coast there are Albemarle and Pamlico Sound-sheets of shallow water separated from the ocean by low, sandy islands the navigation of which is difficult. The chief rivers are the Roanoke, which flows into Albemarle Sound; the Neuse, entering Pamlico; and the Cape Fear River, on which stands the port of Wilmington. The principal towns are Raleigh (the capital), Fayetteville, and Wilmington. Pitch, tar, and turpentine are produced in immense quantities from the pine forests, and are valued at $2,000,000 annually. In the early part of this century N. C. was the chief gold-mining state in the Union. Coal, iron, and copper are also found. In 1872 the cotton crop was 167,653 bales, and in 1870 the farm produce was $57,845,940, and all property $260,757,244. Provision has been. made in the constitution of 1868 for public schools, but the education of the common people is backward, and there are many 'poor whites."

The earliest English settlement in N. C. was made at Roanoke The in 1587, but the colonists were never afterwards heard of. next settlers came from Virginia about 1650. In 1662 the land was granted to Clarendon, Ashley, and six other noblemen, by Charles II., hence the name Carolina. John Locke, in 1672, framed his scheme of government for the Carolinas, but it was soon abandoned. The proprietary lasted till 1719, when

the Carolinas were separated and granted a royal government. Prior to the Revolution many Highlanders settled in the state, and the Gaelic tongue was maintained till recent times.

N. C. sends eight members to the House of Representatives. The state debt is $34,095,045. Pop. in 1870 (blacks 391,630), 1,071,361.

Caroli'na Pink. See SPIGELIA.

Carolina, South, one of the original thirteen states of the Union, lies between 32° and 35° 10' Ñ. lat., having N. Carolina on the N., and Georgia on the S. and W. Area, 29,385 sq. miles. There is a coast-line of 200 miles on the Atlantic, fringed with islands which produce the finest sea-island cotton. For 100 miles inland the land is low, swampy, and unhealthy. It then ascends to the N. W. border, where the mountains are 4000 feet high. The chief rivers are the Great Peedee, navigable to Cheraw, the Santee, and the Savannah. The soil produces rice, tobacco, indigo, sugar, maize, and above all, cotton-the cotton crop (in 1872) amounting to 223,352 bales. The total The total farm products in 1870 were valued at $41,909,402; the real and personal property at $208, 146,989. The state debt was $13,075,229. S. C. has gold, lead, iron, marble, sienite, and granite, besides great beds of decayed shells and bones, which have been much utilised in agriculture. Charleston is the principal city, Columbia is the capital; Beaufort has a splendid harbour, and the high inland town of Aiken is much resorted to by invalids on account of its congenial climate.

S. C., 'the Palmetto State,' was the home of Southern chivalry and politics. In 1829 it espoused Nullification-the right to annul any act of the Union-but President Jackson stamped out the movement. S. C. seceded in December 20, 1860, and fired the first gun in the civil war. It suffered most severely, and is still depressed. The state has been reconstructed, and negroes now fill many offices. It sends five members to the House of Representatives. Pop. in 1870 (blacks 415,814), 705,606.

Car'oline, Amelia Elizabeth, wife of George IV. of England, was the daughter of Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick, and was born 17th May 1768. Married to the Prince of Wales, 8th April 1795, she gave birth to the Princess Charlotte on 7th January of the following year, when her husHer father-in-law, George band separated himself from her. III., and the nation sided with C., though reports affecting her honour were studiously circulated by the friends of the Prince. In 1814 she left England on a lengthened tour, and ultimately settled at Lake Como. An Italian, named Bergami, had been and continued to be her companion; and on her refusal in 1820 of an annuity of £50,000 to renounce the title of queen, a charge of adultery was brought against her, and sustained by a majority in the House of Lords. The feeling of the nation, however, was so pronounced in her favour that the proceedings were allowed to drop. In July 1821, being refused admission into Westminster Abbey to witness the coronation of her husband, her system received such a shock that she fell ill on the 30th of the same month, and died on the 7th of August following. Her daughter, Charlotte Augusta, was married to Prince Leopold, afterwards Leopold I., King of the Belgians. She died 6th November 1817.

Caro'ra, a town of Venezuela, S. America, about 160 miles W. of Valencia. The surrounding district is famous for its wild cochineal, in which, as also in gums, resins, balsams, and agri

cultural produce, a considerable trade is carried on. Leather and ropes are manufactured, and excellent hammocks are made

out of maguey, a coarse fibre obtained by macerating the leaves of the Agave Americana. Pop. about 10,000.

Car'otid Arteries are the two large arterial vessels which supply blood to the head-one on each side of the neck, respectively called right and left C. A. The right common carotid The right common carotid artery arises from the Innominate Artery (q. v.), and the left from the arch of the Aorta (q. v.). The latter is therefore longer, and rises in the chest. At the upper border of the Thyroid Cartilage (q. v.) each divides into two branches, the external carotid artery and the internal carotid artery. The external carotid artery, after giving off six branches, viz., to the thyroid gland, the tongue, the face, the back of the scalp, the back of the ear, and the pharynx (q. v.), is itself divided into the tem

poral and internal Maxillary Arteries (q. v.). The internal carotid artery enters the skull through a hole in the Temporal Bone (q. v.), and is also divided into various branches to supply the front of the brain, the eye, &c. In wounds of C. A. and in Aneurisms (q. v.), the vessels have on several occasions, by Sir Astley Cooper and other surgeons, been successfully tied, and there are cases on record in which the carotid artery on both sides of the neck have been tied. In garotting, the C. A. are pressed against the bone, and blood to a great extent prevented from entering the brain.

Carouge', a town of Switzerland, in the canton of Geneva, on the left bank of the Arve, a tributary of the Rhone, and Catholic and a Protestant church. Leather, thread, watches, about 1 mile S. of the city of Geneva. It has a fine Roman Arve connects the town with Geneva. Pop. (1870) 5873. pottery, and clay pipes are manufactured. A bridge across the

Carp (Cyprinus carpio), a fresh-water Teleostean fish, belonging to the section Malacopteri of that order, and forming the type of a special family Cyprinidæ (q. v.), to which barbels, minnows, tenches, breams, bleaks, &c., also belong. This fish has been long known in England-at any rate, prior to 1496—and it is doubtful if the statement that it is a naturalised fish in Britain can be

Carp.

supported by fact and proof. The body is somewhat arched and compressed; the scales are large; the head small; a single long dorsal fin exists; the intestine wants cæcal appendages, and the air-bladder is divided, and communicates with the labyrinth of the ear. These fishes occur throughout Europe, and chiefly inhabit the waters of still ponds, and rivers which do not flow rapidly. They live to a great age, and are very prolific, over 600,000 ova having been counted in a single female of moderate size. The food consists of aquatic plants; and, as in other members of the family, the teeth of the hinder part of the mouth are so adapted as to work against the base of the skull, and so to crush and triturate the food. A C. of about six years of age will weigh on an average about 3 lbs., these proportions being in some few cases greatly exceeded. In winter these fishes bury themselves in the mud, and appear to hybernate in a manThe golden C., or goldfish (C. auratus), is a hardy ally of the C. (See GOLDFISH.) The flesh of the C. is very palatable, although it has somewhat fallen in repute, presumably from the greater supply of marine food-fishes; but on the Continent great attention is in some localities paid to the rearing and breeding of these fishes, particularly in inland districts of Roman Catholic countries, where a supply of palatable fish is requisite.

ner.

The C. is caught by means of red-worm bait, gentles, larvæ, green pea, and other vegetable baits. It is difficult to angle for, since it nibbles freely, but is a shy biter, and even when fairly hooked, may lead its captor a long race before it is finally secured. See also CRUCIAN, GIBEL, &c.

Carpa'thians, the E. wing of the great mountain system of Central Europe, encloses Hungary and Transylvania on the N., E., and partly on the S., in a vast crescent, and has an separated from the Alps by the valley of the Danube, and from entire length of 800 miles. The C. form a system in themselves, the mountains of Silesia and Moravia by the depression of highlands in the N. W., (2) the Transylvanian highlands in the the March, and are divided into (1) the Carpatho-Hungarian S. E., and (3) the woody range which binds these together. The loftiest group is the Tatra, or the Carpat, on the N. frontier of Hungary, with several peaks of nearly 9000 feet, the highest being the Eisthaler Thurm, so called because the only glacier in the Č. is here. In the central range, granite and gneiss groups are the basis of cretaceous, triassic, and Eocene formations the Waldgebirge is almost entirely Silurian; and in the S.E. range, igneous and volcanic rocks occur with breccia and sandstone. The lower ranges are clad in forests of cherry, oak, beech, and pine, and yield iron and other minerals. The chief rivers which rise in the C. are the Theiss, Maros, Szamos, and Körös. See Hildebrandt, Karpatenbilder (Glog. 1863).