Car'pel. See Fruit.

Carpenter Bees (Xylocopa), referred to in the article BEE, and so named from their habit of excavating nests in decaying wood. X. violacea is a familiar species, included in the family Apida, or true bees.

Carpenter, Ship's, the third warrant officer on board a man-of-war, whose duty it is, in conjunction with his mate and crew, to attend to the necessary repairs of the hull, masts, and spars. He sees after the condition of the boats and pumps, and during battle looks after the plugging of shot-holes.

Car'penter, William Benjamin, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., an eminent physiologist, was born at Bristol in 1813, and graduated M. D. at the University of Edinburgh in 1839. He was appointed Professor of Medical Jurisprudence at University College in 1848, and was soon after elected Examiner in Physiology and Comparative Anatomy in the University of London. He held these offices until 1856, when he was appointed Registrar to that university. He is the author of Principles of General and Comparative Physiology (1839), Principles of Human Physiology (1846), A Manual of Physiology, The Microscope and its Revelations (1856), Introduction to the Study of the Foraminifera, The Principles of Mental Physiology (1874), and many able papers in influential periodicals. The royal medal of the Council of the Royal Society was awarded to Č. in 1861. He took a leading part in the deep-sea explorations authorised by Government in 1868-70, and subsequently suggested the cruise of the Challenger. C. was president of the British Association at its meeting in Brighton in 1872.

Carpentras, a town in the department of Vaucluse, France, on the Auzon, 15 miles N. E. of Avignon by railway. It is encircled by promenades, and still preserves its old fortifications, containing two gates of the 14th c. It has a triumphal arch of the 3d c., an old cathedral of St Siffrein, and a legate's palace. An aqueduct of forty-eight arches, which still supplies C. with water, was constructed 1729–34. The chief manufactures are cotton, chemicals, leather, and earthenware. Pop (1872) 7857. C. the Carpentoracte of the Romans, and the capital of the Celtic Meminiens, was a flourishing town before Cæsar's invasion of Gaul.

Carpentry (from the Lat. carpentum, 'a cart'), is, in its most general application, the art of working in wood and adapting it to structural purposes. The word is generally restricted, however, to the heavier class of woodwork, such as the frames of roofs or the joists of floors. The preparation of the smaller fittings about a house, as doors, window-sashes, &c., is called joinery. Cabinetmaking is essentially a higher branch of joinery. Patternmaking also-the construction of the wooden patterns and core-boxes from which the moulds in an iron or brass foundry are made-is a separate branch of C., and one which requires great skill and accuracy.

The timber has been already roughly shaped in the saw-mill before it comes into the carpenter's hands; he receives it in the form of squared logs or of planks of various sizes. The first rough cutting of the wood into the required special forms which comes fairly within the limits of C. is done by saws. Circular and band saws, both worked by power, are here of much use. The first cut up the larger pieces of wood with amazing rapidity, and are used mostly for that purpose. The band-saw consists of an endless ribbon of steel, often about half an inch wide, and so thin as to be quite flexible, with teeth upon one side, which is carried over two large rapidly-revolving wheels. The work is held upon a suitable table, and pressed against the saw, which, owing to its narrowness, can be made to cut out very complicated patterns with great ease. Band-saws differ in form according to the nature of the work for which they are to be used. The ripping-saw and band-saw are for the larger pieces; the tenon-saw is used for cutting small pieces across the grain; it is very thin, and strengthened by a rib upon its back; the keyhole-saw is employed for cutting along a curved line.

The wood is smoothed by planes. The jack-plane is used for rough work, and the larger trying-plane for finishing a surface where accuracy is required. The little smoothing-plane has many applications; and moulding-planes, the irons of which are formed to special patterns, are used to cut long ornamental edges or moulds. For paring wood, or forming the edges of recesses

or holes, chisels of different sizes are used. Common chisels are called by carpenters firmer or paring chisels; and the thicker and narrower variety used for cutting narrow slots are mortise-chisels. Gouges are simply curved chisels, used in paring circular or curved holes or recesses. For boring small holes for nails a bradawl is used, and for screws a gimblet. For somewhat larger It is usually holes a bit or centrebit is the tool commonly used. placed in a frame called a brace, having a cranked handle, by means of which it can be turned round. Most of the operations of C. can be performed by machinery, and in cases where large numbers of pieces of the same or similar form have frequently to be made, wood-working machinery, as it is called, is often employed, and its employment seems to become more extensive

every year.

In the lighter kinds of woodwork, the different pieces are fastened together with glue, nails, or screws, as may be most suitable. Various forms of dovetail and mitre joints are also used in cabinetmaking, when appearance as well as stiffness has to be considered, but the more important forms of joint in woodwork are those which occur in C. proper, where strength is the principal thing to be considered. The form of these joints, drawings of which will be found in all books on C., depends on the nature of the stress which they have to resist. In most cases they weaken the piece in which they occur very considerably, and it is therefore important to use them as seldom as possible, as well as to employ the best proportions when they have to be used. A piece which has to resist direct tension is jointed either by scarfing or fishing, or both. In the former, which is the neater but less strong, each of the two ends which come together is stepped, or cut away, for a certain distance, so that when they are put together the apparent size of the beam at the joint remains the same as it is elsewhere. Bolts passing through the scarfs or steps hold them together. In a fished joint, the ends of the two pieces are simply squared and made to abut, while on each side of the beam a separate piece of wood is placed, the whole being secured through bolts of iron. If the joint is to be in comsecured through bolts of iron. pression, the principal point to be attended to is that the abutting surfaces should be true, and as nearly as possible normal to the direction of the thrust. To make the strongest possible joint, the upper and lower parts of the beam should be cut as little as possible, as its strength is far less impaired by cutting it away about the middle of its depth. See Riddell's Carpenter, Joiner, &c. (T. C. Jack, Edinb. 1876).

Carpet (Fr. carpette, Low Lat. carpeta, 'woollen cloth,' from carpere, 'to pluck wool '), a woven or felted covering for the floors of apartments, usually made entirely or in great part of worsted. The principal seats of C. manufacture in Great Britain are at Kidderminster, Halifax, and Leeds in England, and Kilmarnock, Glasgow, Bannockburn, and Aberdeen in Scotland; but a considerable trade in a cheap carpeting of jute is also carried on in Dundee. The principal varieties of carpets are-Ist, Kidderminster or Scotch; 2d, Brussels; 3d, Wilton; 4th, Tapestry; 5th, Turkey or Persian; 6th, patent Axminster; and 7th, felted carpets. Kidderminster, or Scotch carpets, are very extensively manufactured at Kilmarnock in Scotland, the warp being made of worsted yarn and the weft of wool. The carpets are made either two-ply or three-ply; that is, of two or three distinct webs interwoven so as to form one piece. The patterns are produced by the different coloured webs being alternately brought through each other to the surface, so that, although the design is the same on both sides, the colours in which it is wrought are reversed. The weaving is of course done in the Jacquard Loom. Brussels carpets are a more expensive manufacture than the Kidderminster or Scotch kinds; the back is composed of a web of stout linen thread, and the pattern is produced by a surface of coloured worsted warp threads being woven down into the linen texture. The worsted warp has a round looped pile, produced by passing it over iron or steel wire in the process of weaving. Only a limited number of colours can be used in a Brussels C., and as a large proportion of the coloured worsted yarn is absorbed in the back of the C., much material is practically wasted, while no great latitude of design can be introduced. Wilton or velvet-pile carpets only differ from Brussels in having the raised loops cut before the wire is withdrawn, and thus producing a velvety surface. Tapestry carpets, which have a pile and superficial appearance like Brussels carpets, are made by printing the warp yarn before

weaving, whereby the use of the complex frames and numerous bobbins required for Brussels C. is avoided, and the waste of yarn in the body of the texture obviated. The process of preparing the yarn was the invention of Mr Richard Whytock of Edinburgh, and consists of drawing the pattern-not as it appears when woyen, but as it would be with the threads fully stretched-on design paper, and printing the yarn according to it. Turkey carpets are the variety originally introduced to Western nations by the returning Crusaders. They are made with a warp and weft of very strong linen yarn or twine, with which are interwoven tightly tied tufts or short lengths of wool, coloured according to the pattern to be produced. The ends of the tufts stand up at right angles to the plane of the warp, and after the entire C. is woven and fastened by this very tedious process, the surface is cropped even with a pair of shears. The original Axminster carpets were simply imitations of Turkey carpets; but in 1839 Mr James Templeton obtained a patent for the manufacture of patent Axminster carpets, and by his process the most beautiful and durable carpeting is now made. The first idea of his process he obtained from 'Chenille' shawls, in the manufacture of which he was engaged. A pattern is drawn upon paper ruled in narrow parallel lines,

which lines are cut up into strips for the guidance of the weaver. A loose parti-coloured web of any breadth up to a yard is then woven according to the colours of the guiding strips, only a few warp threads passing through the reed at intervals regulated according to the depth of pile which the chenille is to have. The web is cut into strips along the divisions (a, b) between each set of warp threads, by a machine forming the chenille, and each strip is then a dupli. cate of the paper pattern strip. When one of these strips is woven on to a solid back, and the worsted pile combed through some of the warp threads to attach it to the back, a duplicate of the original paper pattern is seen, and each complete strip of chenille makes an additional copy of the pattern. Felted wool carpets are chiefly prepared by printing patterns on the surface of the felted fabric, and they are used as drugget or crumbcloth. Car'pi, a walled town of Italy, province of Modena, on the Secchia Canal, 9 miles N.N.W. of Modena, has a cathedral, an old castle, a citadel, and numerous palaces. The chief industries are the manufacture of silks and straw hats. Pop. 17,504. C. is also the name of a village, 28 miles S.E. of Verona, near which Prince Eugene defeated the French in 1701. Pop. 1200.

Chenille for Patent Axminster Carpet.

Carpi'ni, Giovanni de Plano, an Italian traveller of the order of the Franciscans, born in Capitanata, Naples, about 1220, was sent in 1246 by Innocent IV. as a sort of papal legate to the Mongol Emperor, whose devastations in the N.E. of Europe were alarming Christendom. He was present at the election of a new emperor in the capital of Genghis-Khan. After a month's residence at the Mongol court, and a visit to Tourakina, the Emperor's mother, C. returned to Europe. He was the first who gave a trustworthy account of the Mongols and of their country. An English translation of a Latin abridgment of his travels, which appeared in the Speculum Historicum of Vincent de Beauvais, is attributed to Hakluyt or Purchas. The exact date of C.'s death has not been ascertained, but the latter portion of his life was spent in missionary efforts in Bohemia, Hungary, Denmark, and Norway. See Peschel's Geschichte der Erdkunde, pp. 150-207, and an article by Dora d'Istria in the Revue des Deux Mondes (Feb. 15, 1872).

Carpi'no, a town of Italy, province of Foggia, near the N. coast of that peninsula (the spur of Italy'), which, projecting into the Adriatic, forms the Gulf of Manfredonia. Pop. 6000. Carpocrates, or Carpocras, of Alexandria, one of the earliest teachers of heresy in the Christian Church, and the founder of a sect, the Carpocratians, which existed from the 2d

to the 6th c. His teaching coincided in most respects with that of Basilides (q. v.), and his followers called themselves gnostics-essential parts of the system being metempsychosis and the creation of the world by angels, See Neander's Kirchengesch.

Car'polites, a term applied to fossils of the nature of fruits, but which it is impossible as yet to refer to their exact place in the vegetable kingdom. They are chiefly found in the Carboniferous system.

Carpol'ogy, the division of botanical science which concerns itself with the study and classification of the forms of fruits. See FRUIT,

Carpomaʼnia, or Phytolithes, an affection of quinces, pears, &c., in which, by the deposition of layer after layer in the cells of the fleshy fruit, they become gritty. It is, however, scarcely a disease, as it occurs naturally in pears, melons, &c., and the gardener's efforts are directed, by means of cultivation, to reduce it to a minimum, by creating a condition which is not natural to the fruit, (Masters,)

Carpopto'sis, a term applied to the disease in plants which causes the fruit, after it has begun to 'set,' to have its progress suddenly arrested and to fall off. It is frequently owing to more fruit being formed than the tree is capable of nourishing, or from the tree being covered with so many shoots that the sap which should go to the fruit is diverted to nourish the foliage. In Italy

the rice crops are often so affected,

Carra'ca, La, a great naval arsenal of Spain, province of Cadiz, on a low-lying island, formed by the cutting of the Santi Petri Canal, which separates it from the mainland. It is about 4 miles S.S.E. of Cadiz, and is defended by four forts and the Castillo de Santi Petri.

Carrageen, or Irish Moss (Chrondrus crispus and C. maleflosus), small sea-weeds, found commonly between tidemarks around the British, North American, and European coasts. On the coast of Ireland they are extensively collected, dried, and bleached. The product is then sold under the name of I. M.,' the name 'C.'being also of Irish origin. When boiled with milk, it forms a stiff jelly on cooling. It has nutritive, emollient, and demulcent properties; and on account of the iodine which it contains, is also of medicinal value in cases where this drug is of avail.

Carrajal', Tomas José Gonzalez, a Spanish statesman and author, was born at Seville, 21st December 1753, studied at the university of his native city, and in 1785 went to Madrid, where he devoted himself to politics and philology with equal zeal. From the outbreak of the French Revolution to the reactionary war of 1823, except for a short period (1815-20), he was constantly engaged in public affairs, and showed both ability and patriotism. After repeated affronts and persecutions by the Absolutist party, he was finally received into the royal favour, and became a member of the Supreme Military Council in 1833, but died 9th November 1834. As an author, C. has obtained a great reputation in Europe by his metrical translation of the poetical books of the Bible, begun in his fifty-fourth year, and heroically persisted in amid the din of arms, the distractions of campaigns, and even the fatigues of a march. labour are seen in Los Salmos (5 vols. Val. 1819), and Los Libros Poeticos de la Santa Biblia (6 vols. Val. 1827). His original compositions are contained in the Opusculos inéditos en Prosa y Verso (13 vols, Mad. 1847).

The fruits of this

Carra'ra, the famous marble emporium of N. Italy, province of Massa-Carrara, lies in a valley of the Apennines, on the Avenza, near where it enters the Mediterranean. It is an old town, and many of the larger buildings are of marble, as the fine churches of the Madonna delle Grazie and St Andrea, as also the beautiful fountain in the Piazzo Alberigo. C. has a sculpture academy, founded by Napoleon, and is the residence of a colony of artists. Its sole industry is the cutting, polishing, and transport of marble. Pop. (1872) 23,827. In the vicinity a-dozen yield the fine mineral for sculpture. They have been are the quarries, thirty in number, of which, however, only halfwrought for over 2000 years, and are now yielding, with the aid of English machinery, £75,000 worth of marble yearly. The C. marble is an Oolitic limestone, the chief qualities of which are its beautiful whiteness and its durability,

Carr'el, Nicolas Armand, one of the ablest French journalists of the 19th c., was born at Rouen, 8th May 1800. He served in the army for a short time, but soon went to Paris, where he devoted himself to journalism and politics, He became the editor of the National newspaper, and, in its columns, advocated with great ability and perfect fearlessness opposition to the government of Charles X, and to despotism of every kind. Unfortunately he came into collision with another journalist, M. Emile de Girardin, and in a duel which ensued was mortally wounded, and died July 24, 1836. A just and eloquent estimate of C. is to be found in the writings of the late Mr John Stuart Mill. An edition of his works was published at Paris in 1858.

Carriage, a general name for a great variety of wheeled

vehicles. See COACH, CART, WAGGON, OMNIBUS, GUN-CarRIAGE, &c.

Carr'ical, or Karikal, a French territory and port, enclosed by the district of Tanjore, on the delta of the Kavari, 152 miles S. of Madras. The territory, which has an area of 50 sq. miles, and a pop. of 50,000, was ceded to France by the native ruler in 1759, and was afterwards taken by the British, but restored to the French in 1814, on the condition that the town of C. should not be converted into a military stronghold. The town is only accessible by the river to coasting vessels, and that merely during the rainy season.

Carrickfergus ('rock of Fergus'), a seaport of Ireland, on Belfast Lough, II miles N.E. of Belfast by railway, and extending about a mile along the N. W. shore of the lough. It is defended by its castle, which is situated on a promontory, and is supposed to have been erected in the 12th c. The keep has an elevation of 90 feet, and is maintained as a fortress, the works, formerly mounted by numerous cannon of small calibre, being now furnished with more formidable ordnance, to enable it to command the mouth of the lough. The greater part of the commerce of the town, formerly considerable, has been transferred to Belfast. The trifling imports consist of coal, iron, timber, slate, &c., and the exports of grain and black cattle. But there are considerable industries, especially the spinning of linen and cotton yarn; there are also a large distillery, extensive tanneries, a bleaching establishment, and a starch manufactory. C. depends much on visitors during the bathing season, and on its oyster and other fisheries. It returns one member to Parliament. Pop. (1871) 9397. William III. fanded at Carrickfergus, 14th June 1690-less than a fortnight before he fought the battle of the Boyne,

Carrier Pigeon.

ing the period of tending their young the homeward flight is said to be made more quickly than at other times. The Columba Turcica or tabellaria are the designations applied to this variety of pigeon, and several sub-varieties are described.

Carrick-on-Suir ('the rock of the Suire,' so named from a large rock in the bed of the river), a town of Ireland, in county Tipperary, picturesquely situated on the Suir, 12 miles E. of Clonmel. It has increasing manufactures of woollens, flax, and linen. Some ruins of a castle, dating from 1309, are still visible. Pop. (1871) 8055,

Carriers, the name originally given in England and Scotland to the conveyers of goods from town to town in waggons or carts only, but, in the later and wider industrial sense, to the large class employed in the conveyance, by whatever means, of all articles of commerce, &c. The trade is carried on in the East chiefly by caravans, in Spain by muleteers, and in countries where transit is more thoroughly developed by rivers, canals, and railways. All the navigation of the oceans and seas is nothing other than the international development of the carrier's occupation. The packhorse was superseded in England by the four-wheeled waggon, and in Scotland by the one-horse cart. The waggon had a hooped top with a movable canvas covering, and a space behind-the tail of the waggon -was spread with straw for the use of such passengers as might avail themselves of it for a whole or a portion of the journey. The palmy days of the waggon in England and the carrier's cart in Scotland are gone. The latter still conducts a fairly profitable trade in districts not opened up by railways; but formerly his departure, progress, and arrival were timed with an accuracy which has been little, if at all, improved upon by railway luggage trains. In England the formation of canals, by increasing the facilities for carrying, had a wonderful effect in multiplying the quantities of goods to be conveyed from place to place.. The Canal (q. v.) was the earliest successful rival of the waggon on a large scale, and its era dates from the last quarter of the 18th c. The Lancashire cotton trade, the woollen trade of Yorkshire, Staffordshire potteries, and the hardware manufactures of Birmingham, all received an impetus by the development of the canal system, which may be looked back upon as the beginning of the enormous wealth of these centres of industry. The Forth and Clyde Canal in Scotland, completed in 1790, was the first interference with the monopoly of traffic enjoyed by the carriers's carts between the E. and W. of Scotland, especially between Edinburgh and Glasgow. See CANAL.

Carr'ier, Jean Baptiste, born at Volai, in Upper Auvergne, in 1756, was elected to the National Convention in 1792, and took a leading part in the constitution of the Revolutionary Tribunal. He voted for the King's death, and distinguished himself by the savage and indiscriminate cruelty with which he suppressed the risings in the W. He constructed an Entrepôt' at Nantes, the prisoners in which were murdered wholesale by drowning, without even the pretence of a judicial process, though this was sometimes gone through in the case of persons already dead. C. concealed his crimes from the Convention by the use in his orders of such expressions as 'translation des détenus,' which his subordinates understood to mean shooting or drowning. The Committee of Public Safety at last began proceedings against him, but it was not till 16th December 1794 that the Revolutionary tribunal carried through his execution.

Carrier Pigeon, a variety of Columbida or Pigeons (q. v.), noted for the exercise of the 'homing' faculty, by means of which these birds find their way to their homes or original haunts from great distances a power made use of occasionally for the purpose of conveying letters-e.g., during the late siege of Paris. The C. P. has been known to fly 150 miles in 1 hours, and many instances might be related where their services have been of great help. It is needless to remark that the electric

The railway is the latest development of the carrying trade. It drove the waggon and cart entirely off all the highways of commerce, and diminished canal traffic to an extent ruinous to the value of shares in that kind of enterprise. Some canals in England have since been altogether abandoned. Those that continue open, such as the Grand Junction, the Lea Navigation, the Trent and Mersey, and the Forth and Clyde in Scotland, are used mainly for the conveyance of minerals, stone, slate, lime, bricks, manure, and other cumbrous materials. Manufactured goods are generally sent by the railway. (See RAILWAY.) These improved means of conveyance have had the effect of enormously increasing the number of horses and men employed in the city carrying trade. This was apparent in the flourishing days of canals. Crowds of carters awaited the arrival of the numerous boats. In Glasgow, for example, there used to be an enormous trade in carting coal and iron from the Monkland Canal basin to the Broomielaw. This is now all but abolished by local railways. Just as the earlier C. became boatmen, and those of them who had made money the proprietors of boats, so when railways began, the C. took advantage of them for the conveyance of the Thus the C. collected goods they had undertaken to deliver.

the articles to be sent, put them on trucks, and received them at the railway station to which they were directed, being entirely

responsible to the senders of them. The C. paid the railway company according to its tariff, and charged the senders of goods according to a scale of their own, But this system has been discontinued for about thirty years. The railway companies now make all the charges for carrying goods, and become responsible for them on certain conditions. They however give employment to an enormous number of horses and lorries in the villages, towns, and cities. These generally belong to individuals or companies, who have no other connection with the railway company than the contract by which they undertake and are obliged to convey goods to and from the railway stations. In the Midland Counties and the S. of England, with London as their centre, Pickford & Co. and Chaplin & Horne employ thousands of men and horses in this development of the carrying trade. In the N. of England, with headquarters at Manchester, Carver & Co. also do a most extensive trade. They keep more than 500 horses in Manchester alone. In Scotland, Mutter and Howey are the great railway C. of the eastern counties, their headquarters being Edinburgh, while Wordie & Son in Glasgow do a business proportionate to the vast activity of the commercial capital of Scotland. But even this system is becoming modified. The railway com- | panies show a desire to take possession of the entire trade, with horses and lorries of their own. Thus lorries and goods vans, with the name of railway companies on them, instead of that of Pickford or any other private company, are quite commonly seen in the streets of London and other cities. This would seem to be a step towards an ultimate comprehension of the carryingtrade by the railway companies. A rapid and punctual means of conveyance is afforded by the various Parcels' Delivery Companies, which have receiving offices in numerous business centres, and deliver goods a certain number of times daily.

Carriers, Wharfingers, and Warehousemen, Law respecting.All persons carrying goods for hire are, in law, common C., and are bound to receive and carry goods for reasonable hire, to take due care of them in their passage, to deliver them in the condition in which they were received, or, in default, to make compensation, unless the loss arise from the fault of the sender of the goods or from natural cause. See, under ACT, Act of God. Hackney-coachmen in London are not so bound, unless there is a special agreement and money is paid for the carriage. Special C., who professedly do not carry for all, are not bound to carry. When, however, a special carrier undertakes to convey goods, his responsibility is the same as that of a common

carrier.

Carr'on, a village in Stirlingshire, on the right bank of the C., 3 miles E.N.E. of Falkirk, noted for its extensive ironworks, established in 1760. Pop. of village, including ironworks (1871), 1088.

Carronades', short iron guns, attached to the carriage by a loop and bolt instead of trunnions. They have less thickness of metal than other guns of the same calibre, and have at the muzzle a cup or chamber for powder, like mortars. But admitting only of a small charge of powder, their range is confined; hence they are effective only at close quarters; and ships armed only with C. have been beaten by vessels of nominally smaller armaments with long-range guns. They have become all but obsolete. C. were invented by Mr Gascoigne, manager of the Carron Ironworks in Scotland, and were made standard navy guns in 1779, to be carried on the poop, forecastle and upper

works.

Carron Oil consists of equal parts of olive oil and lime-water well shaken together, a useful application to Burns (q. v.), so called because first used at Carron Ironworks, near Falkirk.

The

Carr'ot (Daucus Carota), the cultivated form of which yields the well-known esculent root of that name. It belongs to the natural order Umbelliferæ. The genus Daucus contains several species, mostly natives of the Mediterranean region. D. Carota is indigenous to Britain, most parts of Europe, and the Caucasus, and has been cultivated in Europe, China, Cochin-China, in the European colonies, N. America, &c., from very early times; in England at least as early as the 16th c. In Charles II.'s reign ladies wore C. leaves instead of feathers in their hats. plant succeeds best in sandy or peaty soils, but is liable to the attacks of the C.-Fly (q. v.) and Crane-Fly (q. v.), the larva of which destroys the young roots. C. is not very nutritive, containing a large number of heat-forming principles, but little fleshforming matter. It is, however, easy of digestion, and slightly laxative. A syrup is prepared from C., and, when dried and roasted, it is used in Germany as a substitute for coffee. The Candy or Cretan C. is Athamanta cretensis; the deadly C. is a name often given to Thapsia; and in Tasmania the tubers of Geranium parviflorum are called the native C.

Carrot-Fly (Psila rosa), a species of Dipterous insects, the larvæ of which burrow in the root of the carrot, and cause the diseased condition known as 'rust.' Some moth-larvæ also injure this plant, and the Aphis-dauci, one of the plant-lice, causes the death especially of young plants.

coach proprietors.

Warehousemen are bound, when goods are stored in a ware, house, to bestow reasonable care on them, to prevent damage or injury. Wharfingers are bound in the same way; but neither is liable for damage from accidental fire. The responsibility of common C. for a package containing gold or silver, precious stones, bills, notes, silks, laces, or other valuable articles specified in the Act, is limited to £10, unless the value be declared on sending, and an extra charge be accepted.

Law of the Road. When carriages or horsemen meet on a public road, the law, in case of accident, is always against the aggressor. A driver or rider, on passing another horse or carriage, must keep on the whip-hand of the horse or carriage. He will be answerable for any damage which may arise from neglect of this rule. A driver, however, is not bound to keep on the left side of the road, provided he leave sufficient room for other carriages and horses to pass him on their proper side,

Carrou'sel (a French word, meaning a tilt, a tilt-yard, introduced from the Ital. carrosello, dim. of carro, Lat. carrus), was applied to a knightly competition which put skill and horsemanship to the test, but did not require the courage of the tournament. The competitors in this exercise, which was common

Europe till the close of the 17th c., dressed in imitation of

the knights of earlier ages; and a favourite feat in France was to run at the pasteboard head of a Turk with a lance, to cut it down with a sword, or to hit it with a pistol-bullet. It was introduced into France during the reign of Henri of Navarre, but was known in Italy some time before. The Place du C. in Paris was named after a celebrated one held there in 1662.

Carse, a word of uncertain derivation (probably Celtic), used in Scotland to denote level alluvial soils in the neighbourhood of rivers. The two most notable are the C. of Stirling, lying around the windings of the Forth, and the C. of Gowrie, on the N. side of the Tay, both of which are extraordinarily fertile. The yield of wheat is particularly great, and it can be grown more frequently on the same land than on any other kind of soil in Scotland. C. land is also well suited for beans, and indeed shows some of the finest bean-fields in the country.