would in the course of a twenty-one years' lease return at least 20 per cent. upon the outlay. The depth and width of drains are points not yet settled. The system of D. must depend on the nature of the soil. Deep drains are essentially necessary on clayey soils, not so much on friable or medium soils; neither in the latter need the pipes be so closely together. Drains made thirty years ago on very heavy clay land, only 12 feet apart, and 2 feet 8 inches in depth, filled with stones above the pipes, have been found to answer well; but those 42 feet apart, 5 feet deep, with 1-inch pipe have proved better. Deep drains take longer to remove the water than shallow, but the soil where 4 or 5 feet D. is practised is never liable to get sour. Drains less than 3 feet in depth are now eschewed by all practical men, so also is the placing of stones or gravel upon the tops of the pipes. To prevent the choking of drains, it is recommended that small pipes passing through fences or near trees should be of iron, as plants are sure to enter crevices in clay tiles. The tiles used now are not so uniform in size as formerly, but they are generally round with a bore of 2 inches in diameter, and a length of from 12 to 15 inches. Collars preventing the encroachment of weeds or efflux of water are used at the joinings. The profit to the farmer of draining heavy wet land, 4 feet deep, at from 24 to 45 feet apart, Mr Bailey Denton shows to be 7s. 6d. per acre. Drain-cutting has been accomplished with ploughs in some parts, but as a rule the spade prevails. These implements gradually narrow as they cut from the surface of the soil to the bottom of the drain. The The main drain ought to be cut at the lowest level of the field. Into that its tributary tiles should discharge their waters right and left. Steam-ploughing has done much to eradicate the furrow-draining system. See Rev. Adam Dickson's Treatise of Agriculture; Stephen's Book of the Farm; Mechi's How to Farm Profitably; Monthly Magazine, 1798; Bailey Denton's Draining; Robertson's Survey of Midlothian, 1795.

Drainage Tubes are surgical appliances made of indiarubber or caoutchouc, of various degrees of thickness, and in some cases medicated with carbolic acid or other disinfectants. They are used to evacuate chronic abscesses or other collections of pus, as in empyema, when the surgeon considers it inadvisable to evacuate the pus by a free incision. They are introduced into the abscess by means of a trochar and canula, and tied so that the matter drains away slowly, either through, or more frequently along the sides of the tubes. D. T. are sometimes inserted into wounds to allow deep-seated matter to escape as soon as it is formed.

Drake, Friedrich, a German sculptor, was born at Pyrmont, June 23, 1805, and studied under Rauch at the Berlin Academy. His numerous works, which are chaste and massive, include statues (Jos. Jakob Moser in Osnabrück, a colossal Friedr. Wilhelm III. in the Berlin Thiergarten, and another in Stettin, Rauch and Schinkel in Berlin, an equestrian statue of King Wilhelm in Cologne, 1867, statuettes of the brothers Humboldt, of Goethe, &c.), groups (e.g., on the Berlin Schlossbrücke), busts (Oken, Ranke, &c.), mythological works, and genre pieces.

Drake, Sir Francis, one of the greatest of English sailors, was born, about 1540, in a cottage on the Tavy in Devonshire, He was educated, at the expense of Sir John Hawkins, in Kent, whither his father, a zealous Puritan, had been forced to fly. He went to sea when very young, and made various coasting voyages, besides visiting the Continent, until, fired by the exploits of Hawkins, he joined that commander in an ill-fated expedition to the Spanish Main. D. returned in poverty, and vowed revenge on Spain, his inflexible hatred of which was fostered by his losses and his Puritanical training. He then made several cruises in the W. Indies, where he went through many wild adventures, and became a terror to Spain. In 1572 he pillaged Nombre de Dios, and, in the same year, from a 'high and goodly' tree in Darien, first saw the Pacific, and 'besought Almighty God to give him life and leave to sail once in an English ship on that sea. In 1577 D. sailed from England for S. America with five ships and 162 men, passed the Straits of Magellan, till then untraversed by Englishmen, and plundered and destroyed all along the coasts of Chili and Peru. He sacked various ports, took the treasure-galleon which sailed from Lima, and then, his one remaining ship, the Pelican, being loaded with spoils in value of about £500,000, sailed boldly for the Moluccas, rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and anchored in Plymouth harbour, September 24, 1579. He was received

with general enthusiasm, and was knighted by the Queen, and the Pelican was long preserved at Deptford. This voyage, though barren in geographical results, had a mighty moral effect, and emboldened D.'s countrymen for the coming struggle with Spain. In 1585-86, D. revisited the Spanish Indies, plundering Vigo on his outward voyage, sacking Santiago, and ravaging Carthagena and San Domingo. In 1587 when the Armada (q. v.) was about to sail, D., with thirty small vessels, entered Cadiz harbour, burnt a hundred storeships and galleys, then swept the coast to Cape St Vincent, destroyed four large castles, and ended by descending on Corunna. This gallant and skilful dash at the Spanish ports, which he called a 'singeing of the Spanish king's beard,' delayed the sailing of the Armada for above a year, and enabled Elizabeth to prepare her defences. In 1588 he served as vice-admiral, under Howard, in the fleet which drove back the Armada, a result largely due to D.'s splendid seamanship and fiery daring. Had not he been checked by Howard, the rout of the Spaniards would have been even more disastrous. On returning from an unsuccessful expedition to Portugal in 1589, he was made member of Parliament for Plymouth, which he provided with water by an aqueduct, 20 miles long, built at his own expense. In 1595 he set out for the W. Indies, but unfortunately quarrelled with and finally separated from Hawkins, who shared with him the command of the fleet. After a brave but unsuccessful attack on Puerto Rico, he burnt Rio de la Hacha, Rancheia, Santa Martha, and Nombre de Dios, when a disease broke out among his men, of which the great navigator died, December 27, 1595. More than any other man, D. was the founder of England's naval greatness, and the sincerity of his patriotism was shown in the readiness with which he sacrificed his wealth to aid in repelling the Armada. He was, says Fuller, chaste in his life, just in his dealings, true of his word, merciful to those that were under him, and hating nothing so much as idleness, contemning danger and refusing no toil. See Barrow's Life of Admiral Sir F. Đ. (Lond. 1844), and Purchas's Pilgrims.

Dra'ma (Gr. drama, from drao, I act'), or Dramatic Poetry, is essentially the poetry of action. Its form is dialogue. It differs from every other species of composition, whether epic, lyric, or descriptive, inasmuch as it seeks to place before the mind an impersonal representation, by the writer, of the actions of others in a series of scenes of animated discourse and lively movements, by which the story is vividly portrayed and naturally evolved as a changing and progressive phase of human existence. In colour, interest, intensity, and charm, it surpasses all other feeling or fancy, D. P. deals with action, which is life itself. The forms of poetry, for whereas these exhibit phases of thought or elements of the dramatic art are universal. In the lowest stages dramatic representation, and even among children we see the art of civilisation we discern rude attempts to impart amusement by in embryo-in the mimicry of their seniors, and in their celebrations of weddings and funerals.

D. P. is divided into tragic and comic. The former is characterised by earnestness, the latter by mirth. Instances of vigorous dramatic composition are to be found in the Hebrew Scriptures, e.g., in Job and in the Song of Solomon; and also in the ballads of the Greek rhapsodists, who doubtless combined the functions of the actor with those of the bard: but we must seek the birth of the legitimate D. in the Greek festival of Dionysus. The enthusiasm peculiar to the worship of the winegod was in itself calculated to develop the dramatic art. Both tragedy and comedy sprung up in Greece about 580 B.C. The origin of both terms has been disputed. Tragedy (from tragos, a goat,' and ode, a song is variously explained as the song at which a goat was sacrificed, or for which a goat was the prize, or in the performance of which the actors were clad in goatskins. Some derive comedy from kōmos, 'a revel,' others from kōmē, a village,' and ode. It may thus mean either the revellers' song or the village song. The D., according to Aristotle, had its origin in the dithyramb, and in its earliest form seems to have been little more than a choral song by a rustic smeared with the lees of wine. By and by an interlocutor was added, who filled up the breaks in the song by a narrative. Down to the times of Thespis (536 B.C.) and Phrynichus (512 B.C.), tragedy made but little way. The former introduced regular dialogue, and made one entire story occupy the pauses in the chorus. Thus the chorus became in time subordinate to the dialogue. It was

not, however, till the appearance of Eschylus that the Greeks had a regular theatre. He gave the D. life and divinity, and invested it with pomp and splendour. His compositions are characterised by simplicity, harmony, and sublimity. Sophocles, thirty years his junior, and in the delineation of human nature perhaps his superior, strove in the serene contemplation of human destiny to portray ideal heroism, and to clothe all he touched with enduring loveliness and beauty. He added a third actor, and otherwise improved the stage. Euripides appealed rather to the sensibility than to the imagination of his audience. By metaphysical subtleties, eloquent disputations, startling effects, and scenes of suffering, he mars his work, while he lacks the serenity, grandeur, and religious awe which reign in Eschylus and Sophocles.

Greek comedy rose with Susarion, an itinerant mountebank (580 B.C.). Epicharmus and Phormes, according to Aristotle (Poet. sec. xi.), were the first to fashion fables, which originally came from Sicily; while Crates introduced them at Athens, The most famous names of this period, that of the Old Comedy, are Magnes, Cratinus, Eupolis, Pherecrates, and Aristophanes. Of these, the last is by far the greatest. The Middle Comedy includes about forty names. The most celebrated are Antiphanes, Eubulus, Anaxandrides, Alexis, Araros, Philippus, and Timocles. None of their works have reached us. In what respect the Middle differed from the Old Comedy, scholars are not agreed, and some critics reject this division. The New Comedy, which includes the names of Menander, Philemon, Diphilus, Apollodorus, and Posidippus, is a mixture of tragedy and comedy. It is a direct growth from Euripides, whom its poets regarded as their master. Of Menander and Philemonthe most celebrated-only fragments remain.

The Romans were not of a dramatic turn. Their earliest rude ideas of the art, and even their term for a player (histrio), were derived from the Etruscans; their farces (Fabula Atellana) from the Oscans; while the higher compositions of Livius Andronicus, Nævius, Ennius, Plautus, Cæcilius, Terence, Pacuvius, and Attius were either reproductions or adaptations of Greek originals. Of the comic writers, we can judge only by the extant works of Plautus and Terence. The plays of the former have a Roman vigour and freshness which impart to them, notwithstanding their Greek origin, a great amount of originality; but they are inferior to those of Terence in felicity and purity of language. Of the early period of tragedy we know next to nothing; among the lofty attempts of the Augustan age we learn that the Medea of Ovid was much admired. The dramas of Seneca, though often bombastic and turgid, scarcely merit the vituperation of Bernhardy and Schlegel, for they contain passages of great beauty, and are interesting as the only entire Latin tragedies

extant.

For fourteen centuries after Seneca, the D. slumbered in Europe. Italy was the scene of its revival. In most European countries the mysteries, miracle plays, and moralities of the middle ages were the germ of the modern D. (See MIRACLE PLAYS.) In Italy, however, the new D. did not spring mainly from the medieval religious plays, but was partly a result of the Renaissance, and partly a continuation of the comic theatre of ancient Rome. The Renaissance (q. v.) called forth pieces based on Seneca, Plautus, or Terence, couched at first in Latin, but dealing with contemporary history. These were common in the 14th and 15th centuries, and among the best writers of them were Mussato, Landovico, Bernardin, and Petrarch (q. v.), the founders of the Academic school. Gradually Latin was disused in dramatic works; comedies were written in Italian by Ariosto, Aretino, and Macchiavelli; and early in the 16th c. tragedy was inaugurated by Trissino's Sophonisba (1515). In antagonism to this learned school there arose a vigorous popular D., not a growth of the Renaissance, but a direct descendant from the Mimi and Fabula Atellane of ancient Rome, which had lingered through the middle ages in the rural districts of Italy, and in the 15th c. were known as contrasti, as commedia, and as farsa (see FARCE). From these contrasti, laughable impromptu dialogues, sprang the commedia dell' arte, or scenarii, farcical pieces, the plot of which was sketched before representation, while the dialogue was improvised by the actors. These became very popular, and helped to mould the rising comedy of France. The Italian pastoral D., which largely influenced English poetry (see ENGLISH LITERATURE), was quite aloof from the early religious plays, and purely a fruit of the

The

Renaissance, springing from the ancient idylls, and aiming at a fanciful delineation of Arcadian and mythological scenes. leading pastoral plays were Poliziano's (q. v.) Orfeo (1472), Tasso's (q. v.) Aminta (1513), and Guarini's (q. v.) Pastor Fido (1583). The pastorals gave birth to the Opera (q. v.). Comedy flourished richly in the 16th, but waned in the 17th c., the commedia dell' arte supplanting the commedia erudita, or Academic pieces, and tending to crystallise character into a few types, until, in the 18th c., Goldoni (q. v.) restored genuine comedy, and Alfieri (q. v.) reinstalled classic tragedy. Among later Italian writers of tragedy are Monti, Manzoni, and Niccolini.

The Spanish D. began with the great national movement at the close of the 15th c., and, unlike the Italian D., was wholly alien from the Greek and Roman theatre, but flowed through the entremeses or interludes from the Catholic religious plays, on which the autos sacramentales or devotional dramas of many famous authors were based, and from the old chivalrous ballads and epics, whence it drew its romantic colouring. The earliest true dramas are the Mingo Rebulgo, a satiric pastoral, written in the first half of the 15th c., and La Celestina, a kind of historic comedy, written about 1450. The Spanish D. was distinguished by a florid style, intricate plots, and a pervading glow of patriotic and religious fervour. The chief Spanish dramatists were Cervantes (q. v.), Lope de Vega (q. v.), and Calderon (q. v.). Second to these were Alarcon, Molina, Moreto, and Solis. The greatest recent dramatist is Moratin (q. v.).

The Portuguese D. arose in the 16th c. with Miranda, who followed Plautus and Terence; Ferreira, whose Ignez de Castro was modelled on Greek tragedies; and Gil Vicente (q. v.), the greatest Since dramatist of Portugal, who founded a Romantic school. Vicente, Portugal has produced no dramatist of very high merit. The French D. was descended from the medieval mysteries, &c., through the farces and soties, or satiric pieces of the 15th c. The best writer of soties was Pierre Gringoire, and one of the farces, Pierre Pathelin, is the earliest example of genuine comedy in French. The first tragedy was the Cleopatra (1552) of Jodelle, who, with his followers La Peruse and Garnier, imitated Seneca. In the 16th c,, comedy, though still crude, was more It vigorous than tragedy, being sprightly, fluent, and sarcastic. was largely cast in octosyllabic verse, and its chief writers were Jean de la Taille and Larrevy. At the beginning of the 17th c. a romantic D. was arising in France, but Molière (q. v.), the greatest French dramatist, displaced the comedy of intrigue by the comedy of character and manners, and his contemporary, Corneille (q. v.), founded the French classic school of tragedy. This classic D., which was brilliantly represented by Racine (q. v. and Voltaire (q. v.), and which attained its zenith under Louis XIV., was marked by rigid adherence to the Unities (q. v.), by formal and often over-emphatic rhetoric; and, though generally wanting in passion and natural variety and freedom, possessed many noble reflective and declamatory passages, and great purity, stateliness, and finish of style. After the death of Voltaire, the French D. dwindled until the rise of the Romanticists (see ROMANTICISM), who, about 1830, led by Hugo (q. v.), founded a new school, after a bitter struggle with the Classicists. The best of the new romantic plays were, compared to the dramas of Corneille and Racine, less chaste and pale, more rich and turbid in diction, more flexible and musical in verse, wider in range of character, and more impassioned in its representation. The most recent French D. is deeply stained with lascivious sensationalism.

The German D. has had no continuous development, and has never displayed the bright luxuriance of the English and French theatres. In the 16th c. the religious plays, under the influence of Hans Sachs (q. v. of Hans Sachs (q. v.) and Ayrer, expanded into a popular D., and in the 17th c. there was marked dramatic progress in Silesia. In the 18th c. an exotic school, imitative of the French D., arose, but was checked by Lessing (q. v.), who founded a realistic and impassioned national D. The greatest German dramatists since Lessing are Goethe (q. v.) and Schiller (q. v.). For the German romantic school, including Tieck, Arnim, Halm, Körner, &c., which chose Shakespeare as model, see ROMAN

the Gondhs of Central India, the Kandhs of Orissa, the Uraons of Chota Nagpore, and the Rajmahalis bordering on the Ganges; these number collectively nearly 3,000,000, It has also been conjectured that other tribes, dwelling as far N. as the slopes of the Eastern Himalayas, are D, in origin, though no longer so in language. It is probable, therefore, that one-sixth of the total population of India is D. See A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian and South-Indian Family of Languages by the Rev. R. Caldwell, LL.D. (2d ed. Lond. Trübner & Co. 1875).

It

Drawback is used in commerce to denote the paying back on exportation of duties previously paid on commodities. thus allows the commodity to be sold at its natural cost; while a bounty enables the exporter to sell below natural cost. The object of the D. is that commodities on which taxes fall may be exported for sale abroad as if they had not been taxed. It is therefore defended by Adam Smith as remedying the inequalities of taxation varying in different countries; otherwise peculiar facilities of production would be required to compete against a commodity produced and not taxed abroad. The system of warehousing imports for exportation does away with D., because it avoids taxation. In certain cases the D. exceeds the tax, and then forms a bounty. The Act 16 and 17 Vict. c. 107, provides that persons intending to claim D. shall give notice to the officer of excise; that no D. shall be paid on goods less in value than the D. claimed, or upon tobacco not wholly manufactured from imported tobacco; that goods relanded after D. has been paid for exportation shall be forfeit, as well as the ship from which they were relanded. Great difficulty is often caused by the experiments to determine the gravity of samples of beer for exportation, on which the amount of D. depends. See also DEBENTURE and IMPORTATION.

Drawing, the art of representing objects or natural scenery in black and white or in colour upon a flat surface. In ordinary parlance a D. is a representation of an object or series of objects in outline, with or without lights and shadows, and executed in pencil, chalks, sepia, or Indian-ink. In the constructive arts, a D. is a preparatory plan in which the proportions of a machine, building, &c., are accurately set out for the guidance of the constructor. In art, the term has a much wider signification. A water-colour D. may be a highly-finished painting in which no drawn lines appear.

The term D. is also applied to a prepara

tory study or sketch in oils of a subject, or part of a subject, to be afterwards worked up into a finished picture in oil-painting. Elementary D, is now regarded as an essential branch of primary education, and as such is taught in all schools, while in the army, and in many professions and trades, the ability readily and graphically to delineate common forms, plans, sketch-maps, scenery, &c., is regarded as an accomplishment second only in importance to writing. D. defines the forms of objects by means of outline and shadow, and renders the relation between near and distant objects apparent by the help of Perspective (q. v.). According to Greek fable, a girl who drew the outline of the shadow of her lover's profile on a wall created the art. Ardices and Telephanes are said to have been the first to have indicated the roundness of the figure by the process of hatching. Monochrome, or drawing in one colour, using tints of varying depths, is said to have been first practised by Philocles and Cleanthes. The invention of this process led the way to the use of various colours in the representation of objects-in other words, to the art of painting. Among the Greeks, D. was studied rigorously and thoroughly. Pamphilus, the instructor of Apelles, required his pupils to study the art ten years. D. is the basis of all art, and while it is all-important at the commencement of an art training, it is little less so at all succeeding stages. In D., to a far greater degree than in colour, the expression-the soul, so to speak of a picture or other work of art consists. Without D., colour has no intelligence. As the greatest merit, therefore, of the greatest work of art resides in the quality of its D., it is manifest that a thorough knowledge of the principles of the art and a perfect training in its practice is indispensable to success in high art. In teaching D., the prevalent practice in the schools of the Continent, namely, to teach the pupil to represent nature by means of light and shade, rather than, as with us, by rigid outline, is undoubtedly the preferable method, rigid outline, except in the forms of crystals, &c., being in nature practically unknown. An excellent work on D., as applied to the ornamental arts, has recently been written by E. S. Burchett, lecturer on geometrical 131

and perspective D. at the National Art Drawing School, South Kensington. See Ruskin's Elements of D. in Three Lessons for Beginners (Lond. 1857).

Drawing and Quar'tering, the form of capital punishment, still legally in force, for Treason (q. v.), is that the criminal shall be drawn on a hurdle from gaol to gallows, and hanged; and that afterwards the body shall be divided, and then quartered. It is the privilege of the sovereign to change the punishment of D. and Q. into beheading.

Drawing-Board, a board upon which paper is fixed in order that it may be drawn upon. For many engineers' drawings the paper is merely attached to the board by drawing-pins or by sealing-wax; but for more elaborate drawings, or for watercolours, the paper is attached by glueing all round while damp. The glue hardens very rapidly, and the paper, as it slowly dries and shrinks, is stretched perfectly smooth and flat.

Draw-Plate, a steel plate, having in it a series of holes gradually diminishing in size, through which metals to be formed into wire are drawn,

Drayton-in-Hales, or Market-Drayton, a town in Shropshire, on the Fern, 19 miles N.N.E. from Shrewsbury, and 153 miles N. W. from London, It is an old town, and is The parish supposed to be the Caer-Draithon of the Romans. of paper and haircloth, markets on Wednesday and Saturday, church was built in the reign of Stephen. D. has manufactures and several fairs in the year. Pop. (1871) 4039.

Drayton, Michael, an Elizabethan poet, was born at Hartshill, near Atherston, Warwickshire, in 1563, and is said to have been educated at Oxford, but little is known of his life. He produced Harmonie of the Church, his first work, a paraphrase of parts of Scripture, in 1591; Idea: Shepherd's Garland fashioned in Nine Eclogues, in 1593; Idea's Mirror, Amours in Quatorzains, a number of sonnets, and the tale of Endymion and Phabe, in 1594; Mortimeriados, afterwards recast under the title of The Barons' Wars, in 1595; England's Heroical Epistles in 1598; Polyolbion in 1612-22; and The Battle of Agincourt in 1627. He died in 1631, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. D. was a true poet, but forfeited popularity by the prosaic theme and tedious length of his chief work, the Polyolbion, a metrical guide-book to England and Wales, in buoyant Alexandrine verse, and full of noble patriotic and descriptive pasfinest war-poems in the language, is said to have been the model sages. The Battle of Agincourt, a fiery, vivid lyric, one of the of Campbell's Battle of the Baltic. The most charming of D.'s works is Nymphidia, a Tale of Faery-land, wrought with the nimblest, brightest fancy, abounding in delicate oddities of conception and choice touches of colour, See Hooper's edition in 6 vols. of The Complete Works of Michael D., of which 3 vols. had appeared in 1876.

Dream'ing is the activity of the mental faculties, more or less, during sleep. Some suppose that even in the most profound sleep we dream, although the dreams may not be remembered. Of this there is no proof, and, on the contrary, it is highly probable that in profound sleep the cerebral centres, on the activity of which all our mental states depend, are in a state of complete rest. Others suppose that D. is a mark of imperfect sleep. Usually in D. there is a less complete exclusion of sensory impressions than in deep sleep, and thus the dream may be influenced by external impressions, although the mind is not conscious of them as such. In D. the cerebrum is partially active, while the sensorium, or that part of the nervous system which is the first recipient of impressions on the senses, is capable of being excited, not only by impressions on the sense-organs, such as eye and ear, but by inferences transmitted to it by the cerebrum. In D. there is no volitional control over the current of thought, and there is usually an utter want of coherency in the images that appear before the mental eye. Nor does this excite any surprise in the dreamer. In D., also, trains of thought pass through the mind with great rapidity, so that, during a few minutes, events happen which in the waking state might occupy hours or even days. Time seems to be abolished. In D. sometimes sensibility to external impressions may be entirely suspended, and sometimes not. In the latter case, suggestions may be made to the mind of the dreamer, as by whispering into his

ear.

To such an extent may this be done, that the train of

441

thought of the dreamer may be controlled by others, and he may even be made to act his dreams by speech or muscular movements, while all the time he is quite unconscious of any such suggestions, and may have no recollection of them when he awakes. Such forms of D. may be regarded as transitional to the state of Somnambulism (q. v.).

Dredge, a kind of net for dragging or sweeping the bottom of the sea, lakes, or rivers, and retaining the animals, &c., that enter it. The oldest and most familiar form of D. is that important item of deep-sea fishing-gear, the oyster-D. The zoologist's D., a most valuable implement of scientific research as regards marine fauna, differs from it in size and detail. The open frame takes a pyramidal form, at its base are two iron scrapers, and suspended from them a bag of closely-netted twine, enclosed in an outer net of hide.

Dredging in deep-sea and scientific exploration has of late years assumed a high importance, as making us acquainted with the fauna or life of deep-sea areas. Dredging may now be carried on at a depth of four or more miles, the chief obstacle to the descent of the D. (viz., the action of the strong under-currents, which tend to sweep the D. away from the ship in the direc tion of the surface) having been overcome through the use of heavy weights, which are attached to the D.-rope at intervals, and which thus gradually pull the machine to the ground. The equipment of a scientific dredging expedition is no light matter, as may be learned from a perusal of Professor Wyville Thomson's work, The Depths of the Sea (Macmillan, Lond.), in which full details as to the management of the D. in deep water, as well as other interesting information regarding deep-sea exploration,

will be found.

Dredging Machine. A mechanical contrivance for raising mud, sand, &c., from the bottom of a river, dock, harbour,

Steam Dredging Machine.

or canal, for the purpose of facilitating navigation or constructive operations. The most simple apparatus is the bag. and-spoon dredger, consisting of a large spoon-shaped frame, with a leather bag suspended from it, attached to a long pole. It is raised by means of a winch, a chain being attached to the spoon. For deepening canals in Holland, or for excavating for pier-foundations, &c., this dredger is much resorted to. For deepening the bed of a river and maintaining an open channel for large ships, or for cutting the bar of a river, the steam dredger with a chain-and-bucket system is invariably employed. The annexed cut shows its general features. A movable frame or ladder carries an endless chain with a series of buckets at

tached. The buckets, full of material, ascend on the upper side of the ladder, and as they turn the cam at the top to descend on the under side, they empty their contents into a barge beneath. In some dredging vessels the bucket system is worked through an opening amidships, in others over their extremity. Some vessels have a double bucket system, working on each side. Large dredges are fitted with a screw propeller, and some are capable of raising 500 tons of silt per hour. An ingenious method of dredging was recently patented, in which hydraulic power raises the dredged material. Two pipes, descending one on each side of a boat, are joined at their lower ends by a curved pipe with an open rake-shaped mouthpiece. By the forward movement of the boat, mud, shingle, &c., are forced into the mouth

It

Dres'den, the capital of Saxony, is beautifully situated on both banks of the Elbe, 110 miles S. by E. of Berlin, and 78 N,N.W, of Prague. It is divided into the Altstadt and Friedrichstadt on the left, and Neustadt and Antonstadt on the right bank of the Elbe, which is here crossed by the splendid old Augustan bridge of seven arches, and by the new iron railway (or Marien) bridge. The city has several squares, gardens, and promenades, as well as the famous Brühl Terrace overhanging the river. is a great centre of culture, standing high in musical science, and having earned the name of the German Florence' on account of its rich art-collections. Its principal buildings are the uncouth Royal Palace (begun 1534), with its green domes and its rare collection of precious stones and gold and silver work; the Zwinger Palace, containing a museum of natural history, a splendid cabinet of engravings, and a collection of tools and mathematical instruments; the world-famous Museum or art gallery; volumes, and for its porcelain and classical antiquities; the the Japanese palace, remarkable for its royal library of 305,000 Frauenkirche, with a tower of 335 feet; the Catholic Hof Kirche, which has one of Silbermann's organs; a new Jewish synagogue; the New Theatre (1872); an arsenal; and orangery. The D. picture gallery contains about 2000 works, chiefly of the Italian and Flemish schools. Of the former, Raphael's Sistine Madonna,' Correggio's La Notte,' and Titian's 'Venus' and Tribute-Money,' are the most celebrated specimens; there are also pictures by Francia, Paul Veronese, Giulio Romano, Leonardo da Vinci, Bellini, Perugino, the Caracci, Guido Reni, &c. The Flemish collection is singularly rich, embracing 41 specimens of Rubens, 21 by Vandyck, many of Rembrandt, Snyders, Breughel, Ruysdael, Gerard Dow, and Teniers. Among the other more notable names represented are Holbein, Poussin, and Claude Lorraine, D, has a fine-art academy (1764), many good schools and public institutions, some light industries, and an extensive trade on the Elbe. It is the convergent point of five railways. To the S, of the city lies the romantic and picturesque region known as 'Saxon Switzerland.' Pop. (1872) 177,089.

The oldest portion of D., the Sorben colony, is known to have existed as early as 1206. In 1485 it became the residence of the Albertine line. The Reformation was here welcomed by Heinrich the Pious, 1539. The town, which had been burned in 1491, By the Peace of D., the Austrian War of Succession was brought was in great part newly built under August II. and August III. in 1810, and three years later followed the Battle of D. (q. v.). to a close, 26th December 1745. Its fortifications were begun In the revolution of 1849 the city suffered much from barricade struggles. The D. Conference for remodelling the constitution 1851. The Prussians occupied D. in the Austro-Prussian war of the German 'Bund' sat from 23d December 1850 to 15th May of 1866. See Gottschalk, D. und seine Umgebungen (10th ed. Dresd. 1866); Klemm, Chronik von D. (1847); Lindau, Geschichte der Stadt D. (2 vols. 2d ed. 1863); and Dresdener Galeriebuch (2d ed. 1856); Schäfer, Führer der königl. Gemäldegalerie zu D. (1864).

Dresden, the Battle of, was the last of the great victories of Napoleon. This city, the central point of the French operations in August 1813, was held by St Cyr with some 30,000 troops, when the allied army unexpectedly appeared on the 23d. But the advantage of a surprise was thrown away. The Austrians delayed action till the arrival of Klenau's left wing. On the 26th the attack began, but that morning Napoleon, who had been in Silesia, reached D. with his Guards. The assault, though brilliant, was repulsed, and after two days' fighting, the allies retreated on the night of the 27th. On quitting the city (7th October) Napoleon left there some 30,000, who were besieged by the