Marus, who hired Athenian troops, and Amyrtæus in Lower and Upper E., Artaxerxes Longimanus reconquered E. in 440 B. C. About 400 B. C. Nepherites of Mendes (first of thirtieth or Sebennyte dynasty), allying himself with Sparta under Agesilaos, again broke the Persian rule, which, in spite of the attacks of Artaxerxes Mnemon, was not re-established till 349 B. C., when Artaxerxes Ochus destroyed the kingdom of the Copts. At this time Anaxagoras visited E., and Herodotus; and later came Eudoxus the astronomer, who formed the octaëterid (period of eight years or ninety-nine months); Chrysippus the physician, and Plato. In 332 B.C. Alexander the Great entered E., meeting with little resistance. He respected the native religion, and divided the country into two monarchies or judgeships, both of which were filled by Egyptians. The reign of Ptolemy Soter extends from B.C. 322-284, the early part of it under the nominal sovereignty of Philip Arrioæus and Alexander Ægus. The defeat of Perdiccas was followed by the conquest of Jerusalem, Phoenicia, CoeleSyria, and Cyprus, and by the defeat of Antigonus. Ptolemy's rule was beneficent, but he kept the two races asunder by declaring that the children of mixed marriages were barbarian. In return for the knowledge which the Greeks brought to the Museum or College of Philosophy at Alexandria, they got the use of papyrus, a great multiplier of books, for which only linen, wax, bark, or tree leaves had been used before. Ptolemy introduced a proper coinage in gold, silver, and bronze to E. His drachma weighed about 55 grs., so that the silver talent was about £150 in value. The chief coins were the gold tetra-stater (8 drachmas) and the silver tetradrachma. Under Ptolemy Philadelphus (B. C. 284-246), the son of Soter and Berenice, a connection springs up between Rome and E. Philadelphus built the Pharos lighthouse and the troglodytic Berenice on the Red Sea, which was joined to Coptos by a road that passed Smaragdus (rich not only in emeralds but in porphyry and breccia verde), and was furnished with four great inns or watering-houses. Arsinoë (near the modern Suez) and the Temple of Isis on the island of Phile (properly Abou-lakh, 'city of the frontier') were also built. The population of E. was estimated at 7,000,000, the army at 220,000, maintained on a revenue of 14,800 talents (£2,250,000) and 1,500,000 artabas of corn (5,000,000 bushels). The Museum Library contained 200,000 Greek papyri. Its directors were the accomplished Demetrius Phalereus and Zenodotus, one of the earliest editors of Homer. There, too, was Ctesibius, the inventor of the water-clock; Theocritus, the Sicilian idyllist; Callimachus, writer of elegiacs and professor of poetry at the Museum; Strato, the physicist, a pupil of Theophrastus; Timocharis, the astronomer, who by observation of the fixed stars prepared the discovery of Hipparchus that the equinoctial point had moved; Aristarchus, who anticipated the Copernican theory. The king caused Manetho, a priest of Heliopolis, to write his list of kings from the hieroglyphs. The empire of E. included parts of Pamphylia, Cilicia, Lycia, and Caria. The reigns of Ptolemy Euergetes, Philopator, and Epiphanes occupy the period B.C. 246-180. Some of the exploits of the 'Benefactor' in Syria and Ethiopia are chronicled in the famous bilingual inscription at Canopus. The Museum flourished. Aristophanes, the grammarian, the inventor of the long and short marks, the aspirate, and the accent, put new life in the public readings, and Eratosthenes, 'the surveyor of the world,' by his theory of shadows laid the foundation of astronomical geography. He also wrote a history of E. in correction of Manetho. Apollonius of Perga first taught conic sections, and Archimedes, the friend of Conon, invented his cochlea, or screw pump, so useful in Egyptian irrigation. By the battle of Raphia, Philopator recovered the Syrian provinces which Antiochus the Great had seized, but during the minority of Epiphanes (the Illustrious), notwithstanding the tutorship undertaken by Rome, they were again lost to E. The love of letters still lived in the Ptolemies, but along with it a fatal moral corruption. Ptolemy Philometor Eupator and Euergetes II. fill up the space from B.C. 180-116. Roman intervention saved the whole empire from being seized by Antiochus Epiphanes, and assisted at the divisions between the two brothers. Philometor, who gave some of the highest state offices to Jews, offended his own Coptic subjects by putting Greek inscriptions on the new temples. A change is noticeable in the architecture of the time. The screen in front of the great portico is almost removed by having a doorway made in it between every pair of columns. Corporations of monks begin to appear, and from the contemporary documents we find that sales of slaves and gifts to the Church for the benefit of the dead were common. Euergetes, who recognised the independence of the Maccabees, and warred in Syria against his sister Cleopatra, was a monster of cruelty and sensuality. As regards literature, the honour done to critics (such as Aristarchus) is symbolised in the sculpture called the 'Apotheosis of Homer.' The leading figure of the time is, however, Hipparchus, who, with an instrument having a plane parallel to the equator and a gnomon parallel to the earth's pole, observed the equinox and its precession, which he said was along the ecliptic, and not the equator. With him we may put Hero, the ingenious mechanic, whose pneumatic toys are still admired. Agatharcides has left an intelligent account of his survey of the Red Sea, and some attempts were made at a passage to India. Dioscorides was reached. From B. C. 116-51 we have the reigns of Cleopatra Cocce with Ptolemy Soter II., and then, with Ptolemy Alexander I., Cleopatra Berenice, Ptolemy Alexander II., and Ptolemy Neus Dionysus. The period is one of intrigue, civil violence, and vice in high places. The Alexandrian Jews begin to count for something in the political world. Lucullus, the Roman ambassador, finds the Old and the New Academy in debate at Alexandria. Diodorus Siculus is astonished by the fervour with which, outside Alexandria, snakes, crocodiles, cats, ibises, and bulls are still worshipped. The Egyptians still believed in a creation by Ra, the Sun, acting on the river Nile, and in a bodily resurrection, which explains the importance of embalmment. They still buried with the mummy The Book of the Dead, explaining the method of judgment passed upon souls. King, priest, and soldier were still the only landholders, and the thirty judges of the three great cities still administered the eight books of the law. Caricature begins to appear on the monuments. According to Strabo bad government had reduced the revenue to 12,500 talents, and the population to 3,000,000. Cyrene and Cyprus successively fall into the hands of Rome, and along with commerce literature also declined. The reign of Cleopatra and her brothers, with the episodes of Julius Cæsar and Mark Antony, occupies the period B.C. 51-30. The Museum was burned, but the equally large library of Pergamos was placed in the Temple of Serapis. During the three centuries of the rule of the Lagida, changes had occurred in the religion. Pthah and Serapis had become the chief gods; and the moon, which had formerly appeared on the heads of gods, now takes a separate individuality under the name of Soh. The new hieroglyphic characters were the camelopard, mummy on a couch, ship with sails, and chariot with horses; more words are spelled with letters; and with the papyrus the enchorial or demotic writing with few symbols was gradually displacing the hieratic. From this time to A.D. 640, E. is a Greek province of the Roman Empire. The equestrian prefect was not amenable to the senate. A vigorous judicial system was set on foot. The chief native magistrates were the keeper of the records, the police judge, the prefect of the night, and the exegetes or interpreter. Even these officers, however, were not Roman citizens; they were merely imperial freedmen. No municipal government was allowed. The Julian civil year of 365 days, beginning on 29th August, was introduced, so that E. had three calendars-the Julian; the popular year, beginning on 18th July, the day of the heliacal rising of the Dog-star; and the astronomical year of 365 days with a movable first day. Augustus was anxious to prevent oppression by the tax-gatherers, and by his orders the canals were cleared, and the Nilometer at Elephantine built, which shows a maximum rise of twenty-five royal cubits and four handbreadths. Strabo (who travelled to E. under the prefecture of Gallus) describes the wealth and business of Alexandria. The Roman Empire did not extend beyond the dodecaschanos (70 miles) beyond Syene, and this frontier was often troubled by the Ethiopian Arabs of Queen Candace. The worship of Isis and Serapis penetrated to the court of Rome, and Virgil distinctly teaches the Egyptian millennium. Afterwards there was a law against the Egyptian and Jewish superstitions. The pretensions of Caligula to divine honours formed the pretext of an attack by the Greeks on the Alexandrian Jews, whom they wished to deprive of civil rights; the embassy of Philo proved less powerful than that of Apion the grammarian, and not till the time of Claudius did the Jews regain their privileges. Claudius also stopped the oppressive practice of Roman citizens travelling through E. free of expense; he restored an independent coinage. The trade with India in In are elsewhere described; and the numerous changes and struggles of Christian doctrine of which E. was the scene belong to the history of the Church. In the feeble reign of Gallus (A.D. 251) famine induced a plague, ulcer of the tonsils, which greatly reduced the population. For a short time (A.D. 260) E. was independent of Rome under the soldier Alexander Æmilianus. In A.D. 270 Zenobia of Palmyra made an attempt to gain E., which, after a few months' success, was defeated by Aurelian, but both Saracens and Palmyrans continued to assail the province, and Firmus, a wealthy paper-merchant, with the help of Arabs and the Coptic population, made himself independent for a time in Upper E. Frequent rebellions of lesser size were followed by the great one of Achilleus against Diocletian, who had just resigned Nubia to the native tribes. With the rise of Byzantium the Greek element begins to yield to the native Egyptian; theology displaces philosophy; Iamblichus seems insignificant by the side of Arius and Athanasius. Vespasian, of Arius and Athanasius. Indeed, after the division of the Empire the Patriarch or Bishop of Alexandria seemed at times almost independent of Constantinople. The paralysis of political power is shown in the system of patronage by which towns without charters paid a government official for his unauthorised protection. When Jovian restored Christianity (A.D. 363), the monastic system was already in full vigour among the Coenobites, the Anchorites, and the Remoboth. About A.D. 379 the Saracens approach the N, E. frontier, and being many of them Christians, side with the Egyptian Homo-ousians against the Arian Greeks. The radical policy of Theodosius did not entirely destroy the Pagan worship, still practised in secret at Canopus, but it did destroy the great Serapis Library of 700,000 volumes. The lamp of philosophy was still held up by Proclus and his followers. The government divided E. into Upper Libya or Cyrene, Lower Libya or the Oasis, the Thebaid, Ægyptiaca or W. Delta, Augustanica or E. Delta, and Heptanomis or Arcadia. The tax-gatherers were called 'counts of the sacred largesses,' and had a great crowd of numerarii (clerks). About A.D. 450 a Nubian invasion almost extinguished Christianity in Upper E. On the other hand a series of ecclesiastical quarrels, in which the national mind was interested, was settled by the edict called 'Henoticon,' issued by the Emperor Zeno in A.D. 477, which passes by the decrees of Chalcedon, calls Mary the 'Mother of God,' and admits that the decrees of Nicea and Constantinople contain everything necessary. In the reign of Anastasius (A.D. 501) the Persians under Kobades overran Syria, and laid waste the greater part of the Delta up to the very walls of Alexandria. Under Justinian a singular strife went on between the Coptic patriarchs, who were Jacobites, and the Melchite or Royalist patriarchs, who were armed with the authority of civil prefects. This lasted till the Persians took Antioch, and the defence of the Egyptian frontier was practically left to the monasteries on the Elanitic Gulf. A change in the government was made by the thirteenth edict of Justinian, from which appears that the Augustalian Cohort of 600 men was charged not only with the defence of the province, but with supervising the collection of the 800,000 artabæ (4,000,000 bushels) of corn. In the reign of Heraclius (A.D. 618) the Persian Chosroes became master of the whole of E. for ten years. IIe even built a palace in Alexandria. Heraclius drove out the Persians, but for several years he paid a tribute to the Calif Omar, and in A.D. 638–640, Amrow, the son of Ase, partly through the treachery of some native Egyptians, overcame the brave resistance of the Greek garrisons. The terms of the Moslem conqueror were :- 'Pay tribute, embrace the Koran, or die.' At first E. paid two gold pieces for every male of military age. By Omar's famous order the Library was used for heating the baths. The history of E. now becomes part of the history of Arabia and the Arabs. It was governed from a new city, Musr or Cairo, between Memphis and Heliopolis, and these cities were pulled down to build mosques and other public buildings. În A.D. 868, the local governor of the Abbaside califs usurped the sovereignty, and founded the Tooloonide dynasty, which lasted till A.D. 906. The power of the califs was again interrupted by Mahdee, the governor of E. Africa (A.D. 912-934), and Mohammed, a Turkish officer in the Arabian service (A.D. 936-970). The descendants of the former founded the Fatimite line of califs, who till A.D. 1171 ruled at Cairo independently of Bagdad, taking a large share in the wars of the Crusades. The Eyubite dynasty was succeeded by a race of Baharite sultans, or Meleks, consisting of Turkoman Mam silk, precious stones, ginger, spices, and that with Africa in ivory, rhinoceros teeth, hippopotamus skin, tortoiseshell, apes, and slaves, converging on the Coptos-Berenice route, grew rapidly. The linen trade of Upper and the cotton trade of Lower E. were large, and Alexandria was the largest granary in the world. The excellence of Egyptian chemistry is shown in the Arabic name al-chemi, the Egyptian art. Their colours were prepared by the use of a mordant liquid, and their ink (used chiefly on the mummy cloths) was made of nitrate of silver. Naphtha, or rock-oil, bears an Egyptian name. The trade in papyrus in all its varieties, from Hieratic and Fannian down to emporetic (used for wrapping parcels), increased its area. In the reign of Nero (A.D. 55-68) Christianity makes many converts in Alexandria-Jews, Egyptians, and Greeks. Wild Arab tribes from Lower Ethiopia, especially the 'headless' Blemmyes, infested the frontier. The prefect's decree issued on the accession of Galba illustrates the revenue-tyranny which it was intended to stop. Vespasian, whom the Alexandrian Greeks called Cybiosactes ('the scullion'), owed his reception in Alexandria very much to Dion Chrysostom, the rhetor, and Apollonius of Tyana, the impostor; for the philosophers now constituted an important class. Domitian's time we have from Juvenal a satirical account of E. He testifies to the military oppression, and says the people left nothing unworshipped except the goddess of chastity. Plutarch's narrative of the same age describes the habits of the priests in shaving the whole body, wearing only linen, and refusing some meats as impure. The intellectual creed was then becoming Manicheeism, and less regard was paid to external observances. Serapis was the supreme ruler, and the other members of the triangular trinity, Isis and Horus, were invested with more pleasing human attributes. Trajan (98-108 A.D.) rebuilt the Bitter Lakes Canal on a new route from Memphis. In consequence of civil war between the Cyrene Jews and Alexandria he also deprived the former of citizenship. The philosophical reputation of the capital was sustained by Justin Martyr and Athenagoras, both converts. The beginning of the reign of Antoninus Pius (A.D. 138) is remarkable as the end of the Gothic period of 1460 years, which was called the 'Return of the Phoenix.' This happened when Claudius Ptolemy, the author of the Syntaxis or Almagest, containing the record of eclipses for eight centuries, and the name-father of the old solar system of cycles and epicycles, was the leading savant of Alexandria. The Itinerary of Antoninus gives a description of the six great roads in É., and this is supplemented by the Periplus of Arrian, who notes the appearance of glass and sugar in the Red Sea trade. The reign of Aurelius (A.D. 162–181) is without political events except the rebellion of Cassius, but the Library was then in its glory, and was attended by many grammarians, with Athenæus the Deipnosophist at their head. They give employment to the two trades of 'quick writers' and 'book writers." Lucian, then secretary to the prefect, darts his humour at the immovable superstitions of the country. At this time the orthodoxy of the old religion seems to have centred at Canopus (a town which gave its name to the jars for holding the soft parts taken from the mummy). There, in the sacred processions, the singer repeated the Book of Hymns and the rules for the king's life; the soothsayer, with his hourglass and palm-branch, repeated the books on the moon's phases and the fixed stars and their risings; the scribe, with his flat rule, knew the geography of the world and the books concerning the planets and the furniture of the temple; the robe-master, with the sacrificial vase and rod of justice, knew the books concerning the sacred heifers, education, first-fruits, and the order of worship and of festivals; the prophet or ventriloquist, with the great water-pot or speaking-bottle, knew the hieratic books concerning the laws, the gods, the temples, the revenue. These were thirty-six of the Books of Thoth; the other six, on diseases and medicines, were learned by the Pastophoroi, who carried an image of the god in a small shrine. At Alexandria, on the other hand, the Eleusinian mystery (of a serpent carried in a basket) was well known; and it is thought the priesthood had generally an esoteric faith which, by such names as the 'Secret of Abydos,' they endeavoured to conceal, In spite of persecution the catechetical school of Clemens was continued by Origen, and shortly after Caracalla built a temple to Isis at Rome, and Egyptians entered the Roman senate. The great names of Saccas, Plotinus, Longinus, and Porphyry, which adorned Alexandria during the beginning of the 3d Christian c., Egyptian or Al'pine Vulture (Neophron percnopterus), a species of Vulturinæ, distinguished (as are other members of the genus Neophron) by the long bill with the nostrils situated at its middle, by the third quill being the longest of the wings, by the wedge-shaped tail, and by the front of the head, throat, and cheeks being destitute of feathers. This bird, sometimes named 'Pharaoh's chicken,' is coloured of a general white, the quills of the wings being dark brown. The sexes are coloured alike, the plumage of the young being brown. This bird is carefully protected from injury in Egypt by laws, and subsists on carrion of all kinds. The nest is made upon a rock, and the eggs are three or four in number, and of grey colour. It inhabits S. Europe, N. Africa, and Asia. lukes, who joined Syria to E., and held the Abbasides in subjection. The Circassian Mamlukes (A.D. 1382–1517) were crushed by Sultan Selim I. at Heliopolis. The conqueror organised an independent government of E. by a Pasha and twenty-four Beys, headed by the Sheik of Belad. The army and power of taxation, subject to certain conditions, were left with the Mamluke aristocracy. Under this arrangement there was frequent revolt. When Napoleon went in 1798 to free E., Britain intervened on behalf of the sovereign rights of the Sultan, but its success was neutralised by the coup-d'état in 1811 of Mehemet Ali, who murdered nearly all the Mamluke Beys (some escaping into Dongola) and reigned till 1848, the Hatti Sheriff of 1841, guaranteed by the Great Powers, confirming the succession to his heirs. Ali's government was a contrast to the savage oppression of the Beys. He established regular courts of justice, and introduced European manufactures and machinery. But there was only the form of representative government, and the wars in which the Vali (or Viceroy) and his son Ibrahim took part made necessary an enormous taxation and a heavy conscription. The leading class under this military regime was the Osmanlis. Ali took part in the Greek war of independence, and after the conquest of Syria in 1835 might have got rid of his nominal superior, the Sultan Mahmoud II. But in 1840 the Quadruple Alliance intervened in favour of Abdul Medjid. The successors of Ali-Abbas, Saïd, and Ismaïl I.-have done little for their country. The last named assumed the title of Khidiv-el-Misr (King of E.) in 1866, and by increasing the amount of his annual tribute to the Sultan, secured, in 1873, the right of negotiating independent treaties. In the same year he annexed by a short war a considerable territory in Darfur, and has subsequently opened an international court, which, if pro-hältniss der Infusionsthierchen (completed in 1838 at Leipsic). perly conducted, will have a beneficial effect on trade. For several years there has been occasional exchange of hostilities between John, the Christian King of Abyssinia, and Ismaïl. By a series of bad bargains with the French concessionaires the Khedive has embarrassed his revenue to an almost incredible extent. His solvency is matter of doubt, Ehrenberg, Christian Gottfried, an eminent German naturalist, was born at Delitsch, in Prussian Saxony, April 19, 1795, and studied at the universities of Leipsic and Berlin. He His devotion to botany soon graduated in medicine in 1818. gained him a high reputation, and caused him to be sent along with Hemprich in an expedition despatched to the East in 1820 by the Academy of Sciences. In spite of fatigues to which Hemprich succumbed, E. travelled through Syria, Egypt, Abyssinia, and other parts of Africa, and returned to Berlin in 1826 with a great collection of hitherto unknown plants and animals. The results of his labours were seen in several valuable works, including the well-known Akalephen des Rothen Meeres (1836). Although appointed Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Medicine in Berlin, E. set out with Humboldt in 1829 on his Ural and Altai expedition, and here he laid the foundation of his great work, Organisation, Systematik, und Geographisches VerSome of E.'s conclusions regarding Infusoria are now disputed, but he was the first to study their organisms in a purely scientific manner. In 1847 he was appointed Ordinary Professor. Among the subsequent works of E. are his Mikrogeologie (1854), and Ueber den Grünsand (Berl. 1855). The Ehrenbreit'stein ('Broad stone of honour'), a town and fortress of Prussia, on the right bank of the Rhine, connected with Coblenz, on the opposite bank, by a bridge of boats and a beautiful railway bridge. The town has two Roman Catholic churches, a synagogue, and a mineral spring, celebrated as early as the 14th c. Pop. (1871) 2488, exclusive of the garrison (2169). There is a trade in wine, corn, tobacco, &c. fortress, the Gibraltar of the Rhine,' is accessible only on the N.W. side, which is protected by a triple line of formidable defences mounted with 400 guns. On the top of the rock is a platform used as a parade ground, under which are arched cisterns capable of holding a water-supply for the garrison for three years. E. was originally a Roman fort. The French reduced it in 1799 by famine, and dismantled and blew it up at the peace of Luneville in 1801. Prussia was put in possession of it by the Congress of Vienna in 1814, and it is now one of the most formidable fortresses in the world. Eib'enstock ('Place of yews '), a town in Saxony, 16 miles S.S.E. of Zwickau, with manufactures of tin, tobacco, chemicals, lace, and muslin. Pop. (1871) 6205. Eich'horn, Johann Gottfried, the most eminent of the Rationalistic theologians of Germany in his time, was born at Dörenzimmern, in the principality of Hohenlohe-Oehringen, 16th October 1775. He studied at Göttingen, and was Professor of Oriental Languages at Jena (1775-88), and at Göttingen from 1788 till his death, June 25, 1827. He was the first among professional theologians to deal with Scripture freely on the footing of a mere literary work; the principle on which he studied the Bible being expressed in his apostrophe to the writers :- However great my respect for you, ye holy men, never let me fall into the superstitious idolatry already deprecated by yourselves, or deem it irreverent to submit your productions to the strictest rules of human criticism.' His Einleitung in das Alte Testament (3 vols. Leips. 1780-83), which was the first work entirely devoted to the subject, and which was received with extraordinary favour, produced a great effect both on the manner of treating the subject generally, and on the prevalent views in regard to the particular subjects on which he touched. Of his Einleitung in das Neue Testament (2 vols. Gött. 1804-10), the most prominent part was his theory of an 'urevangelium,' or original gospel, in which the same process of grouping and comparison which had been applied to the various readings in order to purify the text is used in regard to the variations of the narratives for the purpose of arriving|| at the true original gospel. Besides the above, his works in the same class are Comment. in Apoc. Joh. (2 vols. Gött. 1791); Urgeschichte (2 vols. Nürnb. 1790-93); Einleit. in die Apocryph. Schriften des Alt. Test. (Gött. 1795); Allgem. Bibliothek der Bibl. Lit. (10 vols. Leips. 1787-1801); Die Hebr. Proph. (3 vols. Gött. 1816-20); Repertorium für Bibl. und Morgenl. Lit. (18 vols. Leips. 1777-86). E. also wrote voluminously in political as well as literary history. His last important work was Urgeschichte des erlauchten Hauses der Welfen (1817). Eich'stadt, formerly Aichstädt (ie. 'oak-town'), a town of Bavaria, 301⁄2 miles S. of Nürnberg, in a deep valley on the Altmühl. It is a bishop's see, is well built, and has an ancient appearance. The principal buildings are the palace of the ducal family of Leuchtenberg, with its beautiful park, the cathedral, founded in 1259, with the grave of St Wilibald, the townhouse built in 1444, and the old castle of St Wilibald, which has been converted into a barrack. There are manufactures of cloth, pottery, and ironmongery. There are besides several breweries. E. has had municipal rights since 908. Pop. (1871) 8051. Eich'wald, Eduard, Russian naturalist, was born at Mitau, Courland, 4th July 1795, studied at Berlin from 1814 to 1817, and after having travelled in France and England, was appointed Professor of Zoology and Midwifery at Kasan in 1823, travelled during 1825-27 through the countries around the Caspian Sea and the Caucasus, and in 1829 explored the W. of Russia. In 1838 he was named Professor of Zoology and Mineralogy at the Medico-Chirurgical Academy of St Petersburg. He afterwards studied geology and paleontology, and undertook scientific expeditions to Esthonia, Finland, the Tyrol, Italy, Sicily, and Algeria. E. has been a voluminous author. Among his works are Reise auf dem Kaspischen Meere und in dem Caucasus (Stuttg. 1834-37); Mémoire sur les Richesses Minérales des Provinces Occidentales de la Russie (Wilna, 1835); Beitrag zur Verbreitung der fossilen Thiere Russlands (Moscow, 1857). Ei'der, a river of N. Germany, which rises about 12 miles S. of Kiel in Holstein, and after a course of 100 miles enters the North Sea at Tönning, the capital of the district of Eiderstedt. Throughout the greater part of its course it divides Slesvig from Holstein. It is navigable to Rendsburg, whence ships can pass to Kiel Bay on the Baltic, by means of the Slesvig-Holstein or E. Canal. Much of its course is bordered with costly dykes to protect the adjacent land from inundation. Eider-Duck. It ave Eider-Duck (Somateria), a well-known genus of Anatida or ducks, but included in the sub-family of the Fuliguline or Pochards (q. v.). The genus Somateria has the bill divided at its base by feathers, and the front of the bill is flat, whilst its lamina or 'fringes' are very wide. The wings have their first and second quills longest, As in the pochards, the hinder toe is short, with a broad membranous web. The common E.-D. (S. mollissima) is found in the N. parts of Britain, but comes further S. in winter. rages rather more than 2 feet in length. The male is white on the neck and back, the primary and secondary feathers being dull black, and the tertiary feathers white, whilst they droop over the darker wings. The breast and belly are black, with white patches in the flanks. The top of the head is deep black, the sides of the head being white. The bill and legs are green. The colour of the female is a ruddy brown, marked with darker tints. The nest is placed in detached rocks and islands. The eggs are five or six, and are palegreen in colour, and the E.-D. produces two broods annually. The king E.-D. (S. spectabilis) is rare in Britain, but common in Greenland. It has a black and white body, and red beak and legs; and the male possesses a warty protuberance on the base of the upper bill. These ducks afford the 'down' used in making quilts and other articles of dress, which is obtained from the nests, and is plucked by the parent birds from their own breasts to cover and warm the eggs during incubation. The eggs and down are successively removed from the nest, the bird laying fresh eggs and supplying new down; whilst ultimately the male bird is called upon to supply down from his breast, and on his darker down being seen in the nest, the fowlers cease their operations. The eggs are very palatable, and the flesh is not unpleasant to taste. About half a pound of down is stated as the quantity obtainable annually from a single nest. The down is imported in the form of balls, weighing each 3 to 4 lbs. These ducks can be domesticated, especially in marine localities. The islands of Britain, Fern Island, Norway, and Sweden, are the chief haunts of the E.-D. in Europe, whilst it is also plentiful on the North American coasts. the sea. Eigg or Egg Island, a small hilly island, 6 miles long and 3 broad, belonging to Inverness county, and 12 miles W. of Arisaig. The highest point, the 'Scuir of E.,' is 1339 feet above E. has a manse and schoolhouse, an old chapel, some Danish remains, and two hamlets, Laig and Kildonan. Eight-Foil, in heraldry, eight leaves issuing from a central ball; sometimes called a double quatrefoil. Eikon Basil'ike (Gr. 'the royal image'), a book issued in 1649, professedly written by Charles I., whose policy it explained. It was divided into twenty-eight sections, each ending with prayer, and was the work of John Gauden, Bishop of Exeter. Eil'enburg (the town on the island,' Celt. eilean, 'an island'), a strong town of Prussian Saxony, on an island of the Mulde, here spanned by two bridges. It has manufactures of woollens, cotton, tobacco, and wax, a tilework, and a trade in cattle. Pop. (1871) 10,286. Eim'beck, properly Ein'beck, an ancient town of Prussia, 38 miles S.S.E. of the town of Hanover, on the Ilme, near its confluence with the Leine. Its chief industries are stockingweaving, tanning, spinning, and manufactures of tapestry and cloth. It was formerly one of the Hanse towns, and in the middle ages was famous for its beer, Pop. (1872) 6382. Einsiedeln, a town in the canton of Schwyz, Switzerland, 3000 feet above the sea-level, is noted for its Benedictine Abbey, containing a black image of the Virgin, to which miraculous powers are ascribed, and which annually attracts 150,000 pilgrims. Zwingli was parish priest of E. in 1516. The existing abbey dates from about 1720. It has a library of 26,000 volumes and 840 MSS. Pop. (1870) 7633. Eire, or Eyre, Justices in. These were originals of the present justices of assize. They were first appointed in 1176 A.D., with a delegated power from the king to make circuits once in seven years. Under Magna Charta the circuit was made annual. The office having become a sinecure, was abolished by 57 Geo. III. c. 61. Eis'enach (Lat. Isenacum, Ger. eisen, 'iron;' 'the place on the water impregnated with iron '), a walled town, the capital and residence of the Grand Duke of Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach, 45 miles W. of Weimar, is romantically situated in the Thuringian forest. It is a station on the Sächsisch-Thüringisch Railway, and is easily reached from any part of Germany. Pop. (1871) 13,967. Among its principal buildings are the Grand-Ducal residence, the gymnasium, originally a Dominican cloister, where Luther received part of his education, and the churches of St Georg It has manufacand St Nikolaus, the latter built in the 12th c. tures of woollens, fustian, worsted, linen thread, pottery, and sealing-wax, dye-works, and many flourishing mills. E. is the birthplace of Sebastian Bach. The castle of the Wartburg (q._v.), where Luther remained in hiding for ten months after the Diet of Worms, and translated a considerable portion of the Scriptures into German, occupies a wooded height in the vicinity. Eis'enberg (iron hill-fort '), an old town in the Duchy of Sachsen-Altenburg, on an affluent of the Elster, 24 miles from Krossen, on the Weissenfels-Zeitz-Geraer Railway, with manufactures of leather, woollens, linens, shoes, porcelain, and stoneand a trade in corn and wood. Pop. (1871) 5261. Among the most noteworthy buildings are the castle of the Grand Duke and a beautiful church in the New Italian style, erected between 1676 and 1692. See Back's Chronik der Stadt E. (Eisen. 1843). ware, Eis'enerz ('iron ore'), a town in a deep valley of Upper Styria, separated from the market-town of Nordenberg by the lofty Erzberg, 5010 feet high. This mountain forms the centre of the iron and smelting trade of Styria. The mines have been worked for 1000 years. The ore is now quarried rather than mined-the sides of the mountain being cut away in some places to a depth of 30 fathoms, in others even to that of 90 fathoms. The ore is rich, and from it is manufactured a steel unsurpassed in Europe. Pop. (1869) 3850. Eis'enstadt ('iron town,' Hung. Kis Marton), a free town of Hungary in the county of Oedenburg, 7 miles N.N.W. of the town of that name. Pop. (1869) 2476. It possesses a Franciscan monastery, containing the burying-place of the Esterhazy family, who have also a magnificent palace in the vicinity, built in 1683, and enlarged in 1805. In its noble park, on the slope of the Leitha Hills, are splendid greenhouses and orangeries, Eis'leben (Lat. Islebia), a town of Prussian Saxony, 18 miles W. of Halle, and a station on the Halle-Nordhausen-Kassel Railway. Luther was born and died here. Two days before his death he founded the existing Royal Gymnasium. The house in which he was born has been turned into a school, where orphans receive free education. Pop. (1871) 13,436. Eisteddfods (pron. eisteff'ods), the name applied to the periodical assemblies of Welsh bards for competition in native music and song. They are of great antiquity, reaching back as far as the time of Howel Dha. At present they keep alive a certain kind of national feeling, but are powerless to reanimate a dead literature. Ejection and Intru'sion is a term of Scotch law, E. denoting the violent taking possession of land or a house, and I. denoting entry into and violent detention of the subject. A tenant illegally remaining in possession is liable to an action of E. and I., and unless his defence be instantly verified, he will be required to find security for the violent profits. Eject'ment. By the Common Law Procedure Act, former procedure in E. is abolished in England. The process is now by writ directed to the person to be ejected and to all entitled to defend possession of the property claimed. When half a year's When half a year's rent is in arrear, and the landlord or lessor has a right to re-enter for non-payment, he may bring writ of E., and on proof that there were not sufficient goods to satisfy Distress (q. v.), he shall recover judgment and execution. But on the tenant paying rent and costs before trial, proceedings are to cease. The landlord's former remedies are, however, preserved. In an E, under mortgage, the mortgagor's rendering the principal and interest in court shall be deemed a full satisfaction, and the court may compel the mortgagee to recover. The landlord may proceed by Plaint (q. v.) in the county courts to recover rent not exceeding £50 per annum. If the rent be six months in arrear, the landlord may, if he has a right to re-enter under the lease, enter a plaint in the county courts to recover possession of his premises. See DEFORCEMENT. Ekaterinburg', or Jekaterinburg, a town in the gov ernment of Perm, on the eastern side of the Ural Mountains, on both banks of the Isset, and 160 miles S. E. of the town of Perm. It occupies a hilly plain on the highroad to Siberia, is the centre of the mining industry of the Ural Mountains, the largest town in the government and in the Ural region, and has broad straight streets, splendid buildings, including two cathedrals and ten churches, gardens, parks, &c. There are also (1853) a museum of mineralogy and an imperial mint. The cutting and polishing of precious stones is a principal branch of industry, but the prosperity of the town is due mainly to the rich mines in its vicinity. At a short distance are the iron-foundries of Issetsk; 7 miles off are the gold-mines of Beresovsk; and 16 miles distant is Pyschinsk, where the gold is separated from the earth by amalgamation. Pop. 25,133. The town was founded in 1722, and named after the wife of the Czar Peter the Great, Ekaterinodar', or Jekaterinodar' ('Catherine's gift '), a town of Russia, the capital of the Kuban or Black Sea Cossacks, in a swampy district on the Kuban, 100 miles above its mouth. Most of the houses are of clay, though some are of wood, and thatched with straw. E., built in 1792, is the seat of the Cossack Hetman. It has a wooden fort or kreport, in the enclosure of which stand the Hetman's residence, the military hospital, and the cathedral. Pop. 9504. 502 Ekaterinoslav', or Jekaterinoslav, a government in S. or New Russia, between Kharkov and Pultava on the N., Kherson on the W., Taurida on the S., and the Sea of Azof and the country of the Don Cossacks on the E.; area 26,037 sq. miles; pop. (1870) 1,352,300. From the southern exposure of the land, apricots, peaches, cherries, mulberries, almonds, figs, vines, melons, and water-melons thrive in the open air. Agriculture and the breeding of silkworms, of Merino sheep, and of occupying an area of upwards of 1300 sq. miles. cattle are successfully pursued. There are magnificent coal-beds, Fekaterinoslav, the capital of the government, on the right by Potemkin, as a summer residence for Catherine II. It has bank of the Dnieper, 250 miles N. E. of Odessa, founded in 1784 broad streets, but is filthy, and has an unfinished appearance. It is a bishop's see, has extensive cloth manufactures, and is the emporium of the trade to Odessa. Pop. 24,267. Ek'logite, a kind of garnet rock, composed of light-green smaragdite enclosing crystals of pale garnet. It occurs in the Sau-Alp in Styria, in the island of Syra, and at Münchberg in Bavaria. It is a tough firm rock, and when polished is employed for ornamental purposes, Ekouk Tank, an irrigation work on the borders of the province of Bombay and the Nizam's dominions in India, 4 miles N. from Sholapore and 205 S.E. from Bombay. A dam of earthwork, with masonry flanks, 7200 feet long and 72 feet high, is thrown across the Adela river, a tributary of the Kistna. The lake thus formed has an area of 6 sq. miles, and five villages have been submerged; but 35,840 acres have been brought under irrigation. There are three distributaries-two on a high level, 4 and 18 miles long respectively, for monsoon crops; and distributed in 1871. one, 28 miles long, for perennial irrigation. The water was first Elæag'nus, a genus of Exogenous plants belonging to and forming the type of the natural order Eleagnacea. In this latter group the plants are trees or shrubs, with exstipulate leaves and unisexual flowers. The fruit is a shelled achene. The genus E. itself is represented by the E. angustifolia, the 'oleaster' of S. Europe and the Levant, and by E. parvifolia, the smallleaved oleaster, which bears clusters of red edible berries, mottled with scaly leaves. The former species is often cultivated in Britain for its silvery foliage. It is sometimes named the 'wild olive.' Shepherdia argentea of N. America is also included in this group, and yields an edible fruit. Elæocarpa ceæ, a group of Exogenous plants, elevated by some botanists to the rank of a natural order, but by others included in the natural order Tiliacea, or the Linden (q. v.) order. The typical genus, Elæocarpus, is represented by E. cyaneus and E. serratus. These trees are chiefly East Indian species. The fruit of E. serratus is eaten in Ceylon. E. cyaneus inhabits Australia. In E. plants the petals are deeply cut, and the anthers dehisce or open at their apices. Elæococc'a, a plant genus belonging to the Euphorbiacea (q. v.) or 'spurgewort' order. The seeds afford oils (hence the name), the oil obtained from E. verrucosa being used for food in Japan. (Polypetalous) plants belonging to the order Celastracea or the Elæoden'dron (Gr. oil-tree'), a genus of Exogenous The fruit of E. is a stone-fruit or drupe, spindle-tree' order, and that of some species (such as E. Kubu of S. Africa) is eaten. The fruit of E. Argan of N. Africa affords oil. E. croceum of building and for making furniture. S. Africa affords a timber known as 'saffron-wood,' much used in Elagabalus, or Heliogabalus, the first Roman emperor of Asiatic extraction, was born at Emesa about A. D. 205. His original name was Varius Avitus Bassianus; he adopted that of E. as pontiff and favourite of the Syro-Phoenician Sun-god so named (Syr. ela, ‘a god,' and gabal, 'to form;' 'the forming or plastic god'), which was worshipped at Emesa. Through the intrigues of his grandmother, Julia Masa, he succeeded Macrinus, the destroyer of Caracalla, after his rival had been defeated at Antioch (218 A.D.) and subsequently slain. The reign of E., who assumed the name Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, lasted for three years nine months and four days, and was deeply stained by heartless cruelty and by sensual vices of the most loathsome nature. E. was murdered, and his body cast into the Tiber, A.D. 222. |