(6 vols. Mad. 1833-39). C.'s collected works are contained in Baudry's Collection de los Mejores Autores Españoles (Par. 1840–41). Cerve'ra, a town of Spain, province of Lerida, 31 miles E. of the city of Lerida, surrounded by dilapidated walls. Its university, transferred by Philip V. from Lerida in 1717, was removed to Barcelona in 1837-41, and since then the prosperity of the town has greatly declined. C. has a Gothic church and a Dominican convent; linen, woollen, hempen, and cotton, manufactures; and some trade in grain and cattle. Pop. 5300. Cervet'ere', or Cervet'ri (the ancient Cervæ, called by the Greeks Agylla), a village of Latium, Central Italy, 27 miles W. by N. of Rome. Pop. 750. It was formerly one of the most powerful cities of S. Etruria, and many interesting Etruscan remains have been found here, especially in its sepulchres. Cer'via, an episcopal city of Italy, province of Ravenna, on the Adriatic, 13 miles S.S. E. of Ravenna. In the Valle di C. are productive saltworks, which give employment to a large number of the population, estimated at from 5000 to 6000. - Cervidæ and Cervus. See DEER. Cer'vin, Mont. See MATTERHORN. Cervina'ra, a town of Italy, province of Avellino, 12 miles N.W. of Avellino, has a convent and six churches. Pop. 6328. Ces'ari, Giusepp'e (called also Giusepping and Il Cavaliere d'Arpino), was born in Rome about 1568, painted a number of figures at the age of thirteen, and on the credit of these was introduced to Pope Gregory XIII., by whom, and by his four successors, Popes Sixtus V., Clement VIII., Paul V., and Urban VIII., he was held in high favour as an artist, and liberally patronised. During his lifetime he monopolised public favour, although among his rivals were A. Caracci and Caravaggio; but his style, though animated, was superficial, and destitute of all the essential qualities of art. C. died in 1640. | from the operation of personal diligence (see DILIGENCE), it affords no protection against the attachment by his creditors of any property which he may acquire subsequent to the decree, by his industry or otherwise. But the creditors are bound to realise and apply the property conveyed by the disposition omnium bonorum before they can attach that subsequently acquired. Ces'tius, Pyramid of, built in the reign of Augustus, and still standing at Rome, commemorated a C. Cestius, who had filled respectively the offices of Epulo, prætor, and tribune of the people. It was used as a burial-place, and stands near the Porta Ostiensis (Porta San Paolo). The pyramid is 125 feet high, and 100 wide at the base. It is constructed of brick and tufa faced with marble, and the interior, coated with stucco, is decorated with paintings. There are extensive chambers for sepulture. In the Protestant cemetery in the neighbourhood repose the remains of Keats and Shelley. Ces'toid Worms, a term formerly applied in zoology to the (q. v.) and allied genera on account of their flattened band-like Taniada, an order of Entozoa represented by the Tapeworms or ribbon-like shape. For the same reason, the newer name of Platyelmia or 'Flat-worms' has been applied to the larger division, including the Taniada and Trematada or Flukes (q. v.). The Cystic Worms (q. v.) are now also ascertained to be merely the immature forms of the Tæniada. The tapeworms, presenting us with familiar examples of C. W., are not true worms, and are not allied to the animals ordinarily known as such. Each tapeworm, composed of its numerous joints or proglottides, is in reality a compound organism; the joints being produced by budding from the head, or nurse, as it is termed, which latter portion constitutes the true animal. The segments so formed are to be viewed as zoöids, or individuals, which make up by their assemblage the compound form. Each joint is the exact prototype of its neighbours, and contains little else than perfect male and female reproductive organs, together with certain vessels, The belonging to the water vascular system, and nerve-cords. joints forming the neck and head are modified; the head being very small and rounded, and provided with hooks and suckers for the adhesion of the organism to the walls of the intestine of its host. The first few joints constituting the neck are also small and immature; new joints being intercalated between the head and the already formed segments-these joints furthest from the head being thus the oldest or most mature. These organisms thus, in the absence of any distinct digestive system, live by simple imbibition of the fluids of their hosts. Cesarott'i, Melchiore, an Italian poet, born 15th May 1730, at Padua, in the university of which he subsequently held the chair of Greek and Hebrew. He was an especial favourite of Napoleon, who loaded him with benefits. C. died 3d November 1808. His style, both in poetry and prose, is vigorous. A complete edition of his works in 42 volumes was published at Pisa (1805-13). Among these are a translation of Ossian (Poésie di Ossian), and versions of the Iliad both in verse and prose (Iliade in Versi and Iliade in Prosa). His essay on the philosophy of languages (Saggio sulla Filosofia delle Lingue) is C.'s most meri-dividual worm is thus provided for by continuous budding, new torious performance. Cese'na, a town of Italy, province of Forli, on the right bank of the Savio. Its finest buildings are the cathedral, the townhall, and the Capuchin church. C. has silkmills and a trade in wine, hemp, and vegetables. In the neighbourhood are valuable sulphur-mines. Pop. (1872) 33,871. Popes Pius VI. and VII. were born here, the latter of whom, in whose honour a❘ colossal statue has been erected, founded a large hospital at C. Its library, established in 1452, has many valuable MSS. Cess or Assessment. See LAND-TAX. Whilst the growth by budding of the single and compound inorganisms are also produced by a true process of generation. The joints with their contained eggs or ova-amounting in each joint to several thousands-are continually dropping away from the organism, and being voided by the animal infested by the tapeworm. The eggs can undergo no development within the host which contains their parent organism. But being voided, they are liberated by the decay of the joint, and such of the ova as are swallowed by another warm-blooded vertebrate animal are placed on the further road to development. Each little embryo thus swallowed liberates itself from the egg-capsule, and then consists of a minute vesicle provided with three pairs of flinty hooks. By means of the latter organs, the proscolex, as it is called, bores its way through the tissues of its first host, and proceeds sooner or later to ensconce itself within some organ-such as the liver, brain, &c. Here it surrounds itself with a capsule or cyst, and ultimately comes to consist of a little head provided with hooks and suckers, and of a terminal vesicle containing fluid. It is now known as the resting-larva or scolex; and formerly, when the connection of such organisms with the tapeworms was not understood, the scolices were accounted distinct animals, and were named cystic worms and hydatids. In this scolex form the animal must finally remain within its first host, and until it becomes introduced into the digestive canal of a second warmblooded vertebrate host, it cannot develop further. If the flesh Cess'io Bono'rum, is a process in the law of Scotland by which a debtor, by making a cession of all that he has to his creditors, obtains an equitable relief. Jurisdiction in questions of C. B. is vested in the Court of Session and in the sheriffs. Any debtor in prison, or against whom a warrant of imprisonment has been issued, may apply for decree of C. B. and for interim protection. This petition is intimated in the Edinburgh Gazette. The petitioner then must lodge a statement of his affairs, with relative books and papers, with the sheriff-clerk. On an appointed day the debtor is examined on oath. If any creditor objects to the prayer of the petition, he is heard, and proof of averment will, if necessary, be allowed to him. The sheriff's judgment is subject to the review of the Court of Session, or of the Lord Ordinary during vacation, the Lord Ordinary's judg-containing scolices be swallowed, however, by a second host, each ment being subject to review. A decree of C. B. operates as an assignation of the movable estate of a debtor in favour of a trustee for his creditors. The trustee is under the supervision of the accountant in bankruptcy. (See ACCOUNTANT IN BANKRUPTCY.) The effect of a decree of C. B. not being to discharge the debtor, but merely to relieve him little scolex simply attaches itself by its head to the wall of the 1. The egg set free by the liberation of the proglottis from the animal infested by the mature tapeworm or strobila. 2. The proscolex or embryo burrowing through the tissues of first host, and liberated from the egg. 3. The scolex or resting-larva in first host formed from the proscolex. 4. The scolex introduced into second host, losing its cyst, and by budding producing, 5. The perfect and mature strobila or tapeworm. The cystic worms forming measly pork, when eaten by man, thus become developed into the tania solium or tapeworm of man. The cystic worms of the sheep's brain which cause staggers in that animal, if swallowed by the dog, become the tania serrata or dog's tapeworm; and the scolex of the mouse becomes the tapeworm of the cat. See also TAPEWORMS. single set of teeth only is developed in C., and frequently the adult, as in Balanidæ, may be entirely destitute of teeth, although they may be represented in the foetal or embryonic state. This order of mammals includes the largest of living beings, and is exceedingly interesting, not only from a structural point of view, but also from a commercial aspect, inasmuch as these animals form objects of pursuit for the sake of the oil afforded by the thick layer of fat or blubber which invests the body, reducing its specific gravity and maintaining an equable temperature, and also for the whalebone afforded by some members of the group, for their skins, and for other less notable and special products, such as spermaceti and ambergris. The The order is classified generally into five families. Balanide or Whalebone whales, represented by the Balana mysticetus, or Greenland whale; the B. Australis; the furrowed whales, such as those belonging to the genera MegapCestra'cion, a genus of Elasmobranchiate fishes, including tera, Balanoptera (Rorqual), and Physalus (Finner whales), are the form popularly known as the Port-Jackson shark (C. Phil-chiefly distinguished by the want of teeth in the adult state, and ippi), inhabiting the Australian and Chinese seas. This form is the only living representative of the genus, which is included in a special division of the above order-that of the Cestraphori. This division is distinguished by the C. possessing a strong spine in front of each of the two dorsal fins, and the hinder teeth are obtusely shaped. An anal fin exists. The mouth of the Port-Jackson shark is filled with flat pavement-like teeth, adapted for crushing the molluscs and crustaceans on which this creature feeds. It is a is harmless species of shark. The mouth is placed in front of the head, which is of large size, as also are the eyes. The group well represented in a fossil state-the fin-spines and teeth of Hybodus and Acrodus being well preserved in the Mesozoic rocks. Ces'trum, a genus of Solonaceous shrubs, natives of Brazil, some of which, from the possession of a bitter principle like quinine, can be used as diuretics and for other medicinal purposes. A few are cultivated in our gardens. Ces'tui que Trust, in English law, is the person or persons in a trust for whom the trustee holds an estate or any interest connected with it. Neither the common law nor spiritual courts having any cognisance in matters of trust, should any question arise between the trustee and the C. q. T., it must be determined by a court of equity. The analogous term in Scotch law is Beneficiary (q. v.). See also TRUST, TRUSTee. Cestui que Vie is one for whose lifetime lands or tenements are granted. Ces'tus (Gr. kestos, 'stitched, embroidered'), any band or girth embroidered with love-awakening representations, but applied particularly to the charmed zone or girdle of Venus. With this she captivated Mars; and Juno borrowed it to secure the affections of Jupiter.-C., otherwise Cæstus (Lat. cædere, 'to kill'), thongs of leather bound round the hands of Greek and Roman boxers to enforce their blows. Latterly it was a most formidable implement, covered with knots and nails, and loaded with lead and iron, and therefore not inappropriately called a 'limb-breaker.' : Ceta'cea, the order of Mammalia including the whales, dolphins, porpoises, and their allies. The Manatees (q. v.) or Sea-cows and Dugongs (q. v.) have been separated from the C., on account of structural differences, to form a separate mammalian order, that of the Sirenia. The C. are adapted for an aquatic life, the body being fish-like in conformation. The front limbs are present in the form of swimming-paddles, but no hind limbs are developed, although traces of the pelvic or haunch bones, and even of rudiments of the thigh, may be found in the skeletons of some forms. The body terminates behind in a powerful caudal or tail fin, which is set transversely, or across the body, instead of vertically as in fishes. A dorsal fin may or may not exist. No external ears are developed. The nostrils may be double or single, and being placed towards the top of the head, form 'blow-holes.' The body may be completely destitute of hairs. The testes remain within the abdominal cavity throughout life. The teats number two, and are placed in the groin. The head is generally of disproportional size when compared with the rest of the body, and no distinct neck is perceptible, the vertebræ of this region in fact being anchylosed or ossified together. The lumbar region, or that of the loins, is elongated, and none of the vertebræ coalesce to form the bone seen in most other forms, and known as the Sacrum (q. v.). No collar-bones are developed. A The by the presence of baleen or whalebone plates borne by the second family is that of the Physeterida, or sperm-whales, somepalate; the blow-holes being placed on the top of the head. times known as that of the Catodontide. In these forms no baleen is developed; the lower jaw only possesses teeth in the adult; the head being very large, and forming about one-third the length of the body. The dolphins, porpoises, grampuses, and being recognised by their generally possessing numerous teeth in narwhals (Delphinida) form the third group, these animals both jaws; by the nostrils being united and placed on the top of the head; and by the head not being disproportionately largeforming only about one-seventh of the body's length. The fourth division is that of the beaked whales (Rhynchoceti), represented by the genera Hyperoodon of the N. Atlantic, and Ziphius, found in the S. Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. These whales have a pointed snout or rostrum, a small dorsal fin, a single blowhole, and a single pair of teeth only, borne by the lower jaw; the other teeth do not cut the gum. The fifth family contains only fossil genera, and is known as that of the Zeuglodontida. best-known examples are Zeuglodon (from Eocene and Miocene rocks), and Squalodon (from Miocene and Pliocene strata). These latter forms had molar teeth implanted by two fangs, and they must therefore have possessed two sets of teeth, or were diphyodont. The Cet'erach, a genus of Ferns, to which in former times extraordinary properties were ascribed, e.g., that it had so 'marvellous an influence on the spleen' that it destroyed that not very important organ in the Cretan swine that fed upon it; hence it and other ferns are called to this day 'spleenworts.' On the coast of Wales, our only British species, C. officinarium, is used as a bait in rock-cod fishing. Ceto'tolites, the name applied to certain fossil remains, believed to be the ear-bones, and to teeth presumably of Cetaceans (q. v.) or whales. These organisms occur chiefly in the red crag of the Pliocene formations, and may be found in large quantities. It is probable that they may have been deposited in older strata than the Pliocene, and that they may have been washed out into these deposits. Cetra'ria. See ICELAND MOSS, Cetra'ro, a coast-town of S. Italy, province of Cosenza, 19 miles N.W. of the city of Cosenza. Pop. about 6000, employed to a considerable extent in anchovy-fishing. Cette, next to Marseille, the most important haven in the S. of France, and a fortified town of the first rank, in the department of Hérault, lies at the mouth of the Canal du Midi, and is connected with Bordeaux and Lyons by railway. It is built on a tongue of land between the Mediterranean and the navigable Etang de Than, and at the base of a precipitous chalk hill, some 500 feet high, from which it is overlooked by the citadel, while it is further defended by several forts, The harbour admits some 400 vessels, and is sheltered by long moles, on one of which is erected a lighthouse, about 100 feet high, Two beacons also are placed on Fort Richelieu, at a height of 230 feet above the sea. The manufactures are chiefly liqueurs, perfumeries, soap, and chemicals, which are exported in addition to large quantities of wine (Madeira, white Roussillon, &c.), brandy, salt, oil, and southern fruits. C. trades with all parts of the world, and in 1874 there entered the port 1397 vessels of 275,119 tons, and cleared 1598 of 339,997 tons. The sardine and oyster fisheries employ over 350 boats. As a bathing-place, C. attracts yearly some 4000 visitors. Pop. (1872) 24, 103. The Mount of C. is the Mons Setius of the ancients. Cettign'e, or Cetin'ji, the capital of Montenegro, 15 miles inland from the Austrian seaport of Cattaro, lies in a rock-girt valley some 3000 feet above the sea. It is a mere village with 700 inhabitants, but is the seat of the government of Montenegro, the see of a bishop, and has a small cathedral and a palace. C. arose round a convent founded here in 1478. Ceu'ta (Span. Ce-ůta, Arab. Sebta), a fortified town on the coast of Morocco, belongs to Spain, and has slight fishing and weaving industries. It is situated on the Punto-Leona, opposite Gibraltar, and at the foot of Mount Acho, the ancient Abyla, and one of the pillars of Hercules. The seat of a bishop, C. is also the strongest of the four Spanish Presidios (penal settlements) on this coast, but it has a bad harbour, and a commonplace cathedral is its only building of any pretence. Pop. 8200, of whom 3500 form the garrison, and some 2500 the prisoners for state and other offences. The other inhabitants are chiefly Arabs, negroes, and Jews. At the base of Abyla lay the two Roman colonies AdSeptem-Fratres (Seven Brothers) and Ad-Abylam. A fort here, which was taken (534) by Justinian from the Vandals, bore the name of Septum or Septo in the 7th c. In 618 it was seized by the Western Goths, and in 711 by the Arabs, under whom it became an important town, where paper is said first to have been made by an Arab who brought the art from China. It successively belonged to the Almorades (1084), the Morinides (1273), and the Portuguese (1415). With the subjugation of Portugal by Philip II. it became Spanish in 1580. C. was the only possession on the African coast retained by Spain in 1640, when Portugal regained independence. Cevennes' is a mountainous district, chiefly in the former political division of Languedoc, which separates the Rhone valley from the northern sources of the Garonne. It is traversed from N.E. to S.W. by a chain of mountains composed of granite overlapped by strata of the Jurassic system, and in the S. by limestone, which forms the 'causses,' or plateaux terminating in cliffs 600 to 800 feet high. The whole district is tilted up towards the S. E., the highest point, M. Mezen, being 5794 feet in height. Sheepfarming on the upper slopes, and the rearing of silkworms on the lower, are the chief industries. The long winter has created a domestic manufacture of drugget and serge. The population is poor and primitive. It was this district which, after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685), became the scene of the most furious Dragonnades against the Huguenots, who were too poor to leave the country, which Louvois wished to make literally 'a desert.' After the martyrdom of Claude Brousson, the people were maddened by the cruelties of the ecclesiastical inspector of missions, Chayla; a prophesying mania descended on them, and under Pierre Seguier, Cavalier, Laporte, Roland, and others, they rose in arms in the year 1702. They were called Camisards (from camisole, 'a blouse,' or camise, a white shirt,' or camis, 'a roadrunner'), and by the Catholics Barbets (waterdogs). They burned Catholic churches, killed priests, levied imposts, and for three years maintained a guerilla war against an army of 60,000 veterans commanded by De Broglie and Montrevel. Châteaux were also burned, the priests and Catholics taking refuge in fortified towns. There is no doubt that the French generals were worsted, for the policy by which they prevailed was that of burning 466 Protestant villages, and slaughtering their inhabitants, as well as all those who attended conventicles. Pope Clement XI. granted a general remission of sins to all who should join the Florentines, or White Camisards, a body of royalist bravos organised to suppress them. It was Marshal Villars who finally suppressed the revolt in 1705. See Histoire des Camisards (2 vols. Lond. 1744); Court de Gebelin's Histoire des Troubles des C., ou de la Guerre des Camisards (3 vols. Villef. 1760; new ed. 1820); and Schulz's Geschichte der Camisarden (Weim. 1790). Ceyl'anite. See SPINEL. Ceylon' (the Taprobane of the classical geographers; Sansk. Singhala, Arab-Pers. Sailan), a beautiful and productive island, belonging to Britain, lies in the Indian Ocean, to the S, E. of the peninsula of India, froin which it is only separated by the Gulf of Manaar and Palk's Strait, lat. 5° 55′-9° 51′ N., and long. 79° 42′-81° 55′ E. It is 266 miles long from Point Palmyra in the N. to Dondera Head in the S., is 140 miles broad from Colombo to Sangemankande, and has an area of 24,454 sq. miles, and a pop. of 2,128,857, of whom 14,201 are white. The areas and populations of the provinces are as follows, according to an official return of 1870 :— : : Physical Features, &c.-In outline C. is pear-shaped, with the apex to the N., and its coast to the N. and N.W. is low and indented, but on the S. and S.E. it is bold and Trincomalee on the E. coast has a occasionally rocky. splendid harbour, and the roads of Colombo on the W. also afford secure anchorage. A rich alluvial belt, some 40 miles broad, encircles the island, and in the N. there is an extensive and fertile plain, while in the S. occurs the lofty highland region containing the heights Pedrotallagalla (8280 feet), Adam's Peak (7420 feet), and the plateau of Newerra Ellia. The centre of the island is partly occupied by a tableland, from 2000 to 3000 feet high, and the mountains are everywhere intersected by picturesque valleys, and are clad with rich forests. By far the largest river is the Mahavelli Ganga (200 miles), but there are many other streams. Those on the E. and N. filled the numerous but now ruined tanks, which formerly contributed so materially to the richness of the country. In the highlands there are several lakes, which supply abundant means of irrigating the rice-lands, and in the flat coast districts lagunes, occurring at intervals, have been made the basis of an extensive system of canals, the massive embankments of which are the ancient work of the Singhalese. The interior is traversed by several carriage-roads, but is still in parts a region of impenetrable jungles, mighty cataracts, and deep ravines. Climate. Throughout C. the climate is singularly diversified, but as a whole it is more healthy than that of the Carnatic. The mean temperature at Colombo is about 80°, and on the tableland of Newerra Ellia 62°; while the annual rainfall ranges from 30 to 120 inches. The hottest season is from March to May, after which the monsoons set in, accompanied by torrents of rains. A thunderstorm of terrific violence preludes the S. W. monsoon in May and the N.E. monsoon in November, but during the rest of the year there is little atmospheric disturbance. After the rains malaria prevails at the foot of the mountains and on the banks of the rivers. Productions, Animals, &c.—The far-famed beauty of the island is in great part due to the luxuriance of its vegetation, and the variety and magnificent hues of its flowering plants. Of these, together with ferns (250) and lycopods, there have been enumerated as many as 2670 indigenous species. But the flora of C. contains few genera not to be found on the Indian peninsula. Of the trees, the principal for timber and cabinet-wood are the satin-wood, teak, oak, calamander, ebony, and the Palmyra palm. Near the Buddhist temples the fig is grown, and the cocoa-nut, tamarind, lime, orange, cinnamon, plantain, roseapple, and cachew-nut are among the other trees. The forests are rank with parasites, and brilliant with the flowers of the coraltree, ixoras, Jonesias, erythrinas, &c. In the highlands the treefern and rhododendron grow to an enormous size. The principal products of the soil are coffee, rice, cotton, pepper, and tobacco. There are now (1876) some 500 coffee plantations, of 150,000 acres, and the average crop is about 950,000 cwt. annually. Of the animals of C., the chief are the elephant, leopard, tiger-cat, hyæna, jackal, bear, racoon, wild boar, and monkey. There are over 320 species of birds, including eagles, peregrine falcons, sunbirds, kingfishers, bulbuls, orioles, swallows, parroquets, pigeons, flamingoes, &c. Crocodiles swarm in the still watertanks, and land tortoises are numerous. Only a few species of the snakes found are venomous. Geology, Minéralogy, &c.—The geological formation of C. is mainly metamorphic, and the surface rock is invariably gneiss, overlaid occasionally by crystalline limestone. There is an absence of fossiliferous rocks, with the exception of recent formations on the coasts, as coral, &c. The famous gems of the island, the export of which amounts to £10,000 yearly, are sapphires, rubies, the oriental topaz, garnets, amethysts, cat'seye, and cinnamon stone. Among the other minerals are the ores of iron, tin, tellurium, nickel, and cobalt, and also plumbago and anthracite. The great pearl-fishery of the Gulf of Manaar yields to the Government an annual revenue of £40,000. Administration, Commerce, &c.-According to the constitution of 1831, the administration of C. is vested in a governor, an official executive council of five members, and a legislative council of fifteen, including four unofficial representatives. In 1872 the revenue, which mainly arises from customs and sales of public land, was £1,174,698, and the expenditure £1,062,994. The public debt incurred for the construction of railway lines was reduced in the end of 1872 to £640,000. In 1873 the various exports to Great Britain alone amounted to £4,331,006. Besides coffee, the annual value of which is £2,350,000, the staples of export are cocoa-nut oil (in 1873, £285,033) and cinnamon (£113,725). A railway, since 1867, runs from Colombo to Kandy, a distance of 75 miles. The coffee-planting employs some 129,200 Malabar coolies. Ethnology, Religion, and History.-The inhabitants of C. are mainly Singhalese, a people most probably descended from the Gangetic nation, which is said to have colonised the island in 543 B.C. This people are in great part degraded and effeminate, and of their ancient customs they still cling to polyandry. | Another numerous race, the Malabars or Tamils, especially occupying the small island of Jaffna in the N., are the descendants of invaders from the S. of Hindustan. The Moormen,' who are variously supposed to be of Arab and Persian origin, are by far the most intelligent of the native communities; while the Veddahs, a tribe of the aboriginal Yakkhos, are little better than savages, one section of them, the Rock Veddahs, having almost, if not altogether, sunk out of the order of human beings. Naturalised Europeans are called 'burghers.' Buddhism is the religion of the Singhalese, and according to the census of March 26, 1871, the number of Buddhists was 1,520,575; of Sivites, 464,414; of Roman Catholics, 182,613; of Mohammedans, 171,542; and of Protestants, 24,745. The treaty of 1815 secures the maintenance of Buddhism in the interior; and the British Government gave up the temple patronage, and the guardianship of the Dalada relic, or sacred tooth of Buddha, to the priests in 1847. These latter are divided into two orders-(1) the Samanaros, or ordinary priests, and (2) the Upasampada, or higher grade; but neither are educated, nor receive much respect apart from their office. C. has many splendid temples and shrines of great antiquity, of which perhaps the most remarkable is the ruined Dagoba of Jaytawanarama, 249 feet high, and 360 feet in diameter. It has been estimated that the erection of such a massive structure, even now, would occupy 500 bricklayers from six to seven years. The cave-temple of Dambool, built in roo B.C., is loaded with sculptured ornament, at once gorgeous and grotesque. Another object of interest is the sacred Bo-Tree (q. v.) of Anarajapoora, which was planted, according to record, in 288 B.C., and is therefore the oldest known tree in the world. The prudence and energy of the old Singhalese kings is seen in the colossal reservoirs and numerous tanks, now partly ruined, scattered throughout the country. The history of C. as far back as 543 B.C. is made known to us chiefly by the famous Mahavanso, a poetical chronicle in the Pali language, the authority of which, however, as a historical document, is at present challenged by scholars. The writer describes the invasion in 543 B.C. of Wijayo, a Gangetic prince, who subdues the Yakkhos, and founds the dynasty of Sihala (hence Singhalese and C.). Of the many kings of this line, the most renowned was Prakrama Bahu (1153), during whose reign 1470 tanks (the seas of Prakrama ') were constructed. Several invasions are recorded of hordes from the Malabar coast, but more noteworthy is the first visit, in 1505, of the Portuguese, who formed a settlement near Colombo, and after a career of gross cruelty and extortion, were driven out by the Dutch in 1658. The island was captured by a British expedition commanded by Colonel James Stuart in 1796, and was eventually ceded to Britain at the Peace of Amiens, March 27, 1802. The interior was still held, however, by the Kandyan king, Wikrama Raja Singha, who continued to rule his subjects with savage brutality. Certain native merchants, British subjects, having been seized and murdered by the King, war followed, and the Kandyan territory was annexed to the British crown in 1815. See Sir James Emerson Tennent, C., Physical, Historical, and Topographical, &c. (Lond. 1859); Christianity in C. (Lond. 1850); Dr Paul Goldsmidt, Official Report on the Ancient Inscriptions in C. (1875); L. de Zoysa, Official Report on the Ancient MSS. in the Temple Libraries of C. (1875); and C., a General Description of the Island, Historical, Physical, and Statistical, by an Officer, late of the Ceylon Rifles (2 vols. Lond. 1876). Cezim'bra, a seaport town, province of Estremadura, Portugal; about 20 miles S. of Lisbon, with an active fishing trade. Pop. about 5000. Chab'lis, a town of France, department of the Yonne (Lower Burgundy), II miles E. of Auxerre. It has manufactures of cotton fabrics and biscuits, but the great source of its prosperity is the trade in wine. C. gives name to a white Burgundy of the second quality, which keeps its colour better than all other wines of the same sort, has considerable strength, and is very pleasant to the taste. Chac'ma. See BABOON. Chadd'a. See BENUE. He Chad'wick, Edwin, C.B., an eminent social reformer and economist, was born near Manchester, January 24, 1801, and was called to the bar in 1830, but never practised. An article on life assurances in the Westminster Review in 1828 attracted the notice of Jeremy Bentham, who left him a part of his library and a legacy. He was appointed assistant-commissioner to inquire into the working of the poor-laws in England and Wales, and his report, which was published in 1833, may be said to have been the main cause of the poor-law reforms which followed. C. was appointed secretary to the new Poor-Law Board, and subsequently Commissioner of the Board of Health. retired from this post in 1854 with a pension. C. has been of great service to his country by the reports on various subjects, such as the condition of the Civil Service, the constitution of the constabulary force, the sanitary state of the country, pauper and industrial education (1859-60), which he has given either voluntarily or as a special Government commissioner. From the first he has taken a keen interest in the proceedings of the Association for the Promotion of Social Science. In 1868 he unsuccessfully contested the Kilmarnock Burghs against the sitting member, Mr Bouverie. Charonei'a (said to have been named after Charon), a town of Boeotia, ancient Greece, near the Cephissus. Standing in a plain that commanded the entrance from Phocis to Boeotia, it became naturally the scene of many important military operations. It was captured by the Athenians B.C. 447, and again by Phalacus during the Phocian war. At C., Philip, by defeating the allied forces of the Athenians and Boeotians (B. C. 338), destroyed the separate autonomies of the Greek states. The mound which covered the Thebans who fell in the battle was recently opened, and a colossal lion, emblematic of the spirit of the Thebans, and referred to by Pausanius and Strabo, was disinterred. At C. (B.C. 86) the generals of Mithridates were defeated by Sulla. A few remains of the citadel and some traces of the theatre still exist. The site of C. is now occupied by the modern village of Kápurna. Chæ'todon, a genus of Teleostean fishes belonging to the family Chatodontide, a group distinguished by the compressed body, by the median fins being covered with scales of the ctenoid kind, by the dorsal fin being single, with a few spiny rays at its front portion, and by the ventral fins being jugular, or placed beneath the pectorals. These fishes mostly inhabit the tropical seas, and are generally brilliantly coloured, being banded in various elegant ways. From the scaly nature of their fins, the name Squamipennes was formerly applied to them. In C. itself the teeth are slender. In the genus Brama-of which genus the species B. Raii occurs in British seas—the teeth are curved and of stronger make. Chelmon is another genus common in Chinese waters, and, together with the Toxotes of Java, has the curious habit of shooting at flies with drops of water, so as to cause the insects to fall into the water, a habit which has gained for them the name of 'Archer fishes' (q. v.). Cha'fer, a popular name given to many beetles (e.g., rose C., cock C., bark C., &c.), the larvæ of which burrow into planttissues, and cause much damage to trees and shrubs. The name is merely a popular one, and has no scientific value. Chaff'inch, Sc. Shilfa (Fringilla cælebs), a species of Fringilline or true finches, Conirostral birds belonging to the order Insessores. The C. averages about 6 inches in length; the male being coloured bluishgrey in summer on the head and neck, with a chestnut back and black wings, which bear two white bars; the tail is black. The female resembles the male in her colours, which, however, are much less bright than those of her mate. The bird is found in Europe, Asia, N. Africa, and the Azores. It flies southward in winter from its northern habitats. In winter the sexes seem to separate, this fact having induced Linnæus to apply to the C. the specific name Calebs. Other naturalists, however, have suggested that these winter flocks really include young males, which somewhat resemble the females in their colours. The eggs number four or five, and are of a buff colour streaked with brown. The food consists of insects, but also of seeds and young plants-these birds are therefore destructive in gardens. The notes are clear, and the song, when trained, is very fine. Chaffinch. Chaff-Cutter. When it was found that chopped straw was much more economical than straw as it comes from the thrashingmachine, the chaff-cutter was designed to do away the old knife. The cutter is composed of two curved knives set in an iron wheel frame, and the straw is put in in bunches. It is self-feeding and can be made to cut any length. Chag'res, a seaport in the department of Colon, republic of Columbia, at the mouth of the Rio de C., 6 miles W.S.W. of Aspinwall. It had a good trade prior to the opening of the Panama Railway in 1855, but is fast sinking into insignifiThe climate is extremely hot and unhealthy. Pop. 1000, mostly negroes. A project of basing an inter-oceanic canal on the Rio de C. was abandoned on account of the rapid flow of the river and the numerous waterfalls in its course. cance. Chaill'u, Paul Belloni du, the author of several works of African travel and adventure, was born in the S. of France about 1820. His father, a trader and consular agent of France at the river Gaboon, in the French West-African settlement of that name, carried C. thither when still a child. Educated at a Jesuit school in the Gaboon settlement, C. soon made himself acquainted with the customs and languages of the native tribes. In 1855 he visited North America, was naturalised at New York under the name of Chaylion, and became a member of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, from whom in the same year he received the commission to penetrate from the W. coast into the interior of Equatorial Africa towards the sources of the Congo, and to report on the botany and zoology of the regions he should visit. This expedition employed C. for four years, during which time he made many surprising discoveries, the chief of which was his discovery of the Gorilla (q. v.). The first specimen of this immense creature killed by C. is preserved, together with many specimens of birds previously unknown, in the British Museum. A subsequent expedition was undertaken from the mouth of the FernanVas River to Ashango Land in 1863. C.'s chief works, which are tinged with a certain hue of insincerity and exaggeration, and the first of which was, for a time, regarded by many as an imposition, are Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa, &c. (New York and Lon. 1861), and A Journey to Ashango Land, (1867). Since 1867 C. has been established in America, where, as a lecturer and a writer of books of adventure for the young, he has won considerable popularity. Chain, a measure used in surveying. 'Gunter's' C. is 66 feet long and divided into 100 links. One square Gunter's C. is one-tenth of an acre. Engineers frequently use a C. of 100 feet long, which has many advantages over the shorter one. Chain Bridge. See SUSPENSION BRIDGE. Chain Cables. See CABLES. Chain-Mail or Chain-Armour, a defensive garment made of hammered iron links, which was much used in the 12th and 13th centuries. 13th centuries. It was more flexible than plate-armour, but was not a certain protection against the thrust of a lance. Chain-Shot, a nearly obsolete kind of ammunition, consisting of two cannon balls connected by a short chain, designed to destroy the rigging of ships. As Grapeshot (q. v.) has been found to answer the same purpose, the manufacture of C.-S. has been discontinued. Chains, Hanging in. In former times it was usual to hang the bodies of atrocious criminals, after execution, in chains, on a gibbet near the spot where the crime had been committed. The spectacle was supposed to have a deterrent effect, and to give consolation to those who had suffered by the crime. An Act abolishing the practice was passed in 1834. The Chair, an article of furniture used as a seat, differing from a stool in having a rest for the back, and occasionally with supports for the arms. In a dwelling-house chairs are usually designed to harmonise with the other furnishings of the apartment in which they are placed, and therefore they vary very much in form and constructive materials. The chairs of the ancients were often of the most costly description, and their elegant forms have been frequently reproduced and varied by modern cabinetmakers. Numerous examples of antique seats are preserved in national European collections. Of the Egyptian chairs in the British Museum, one is formed of ebony, inlaid with ivory, except the seat, which is of plaited cane, as in modern chairs. Romans, as well as the Greeks and Egyptians, constructed seats long enough to suit two persons. Two such bisellia in bronze, discovered at Pompeii, are now in the Museo Borbonico at Naples, and reproductions of them may be examined in the South Kensington Museum. Among other ancient and interesting chairs meriting notice may be mentioned that of St Peter, formed of wood overlaid with carved ivory work and gold, preserved in the Church of St Peter at Rome, and that of Dagobert, King of France in the 7th c. (now in the Louvre at Paris), made of bronze, partially gilt, and beautifully chased and chiselled. The chief English seat of the C. trade is at High Wycombe and neighbourhood, where extensive beech-woods supply material for common chairs. For the finer kinds of chairs, walnut, rosewood, mahogany, birch, oak, sycamore, and cherry are employed. Chala'za. See OVULE and EGG. Chalce'don, a city of ancient Bithynia, at the mouth of the Euxine, about 2 miles S. of the modern Scutari. It was founded by colonists from Megara seventeen years before Byzantium; and the settlers are said to have been alluded to by the oracle as 'blind,' for having selected an inferior site when a better was in their choice. It soon, however, acquired importance, and possessed many temples. During the struggles between Athens and Lacedæmon it changed sides several times: in B. C. 74 it came into the possession of Rome; under the empire it was a free city; Chosroes, the Persian, took it A.D. 616; and finally under the Turks it sunk into absolute ruin.-The Council of C., held here A.D. 451 by command of the Emperor Marcian, condemned the heresies of the Nestorians (q. v.) and Monophysites (q. v.). It declared that in Christ there were two natures, so distinct that they could not be intermixed, yet so conjoined that in Christ there was but one person. Chalcedony, a variety of quartz occurring in mammillated, botryoidal, and stalactitic forms, found abundantly in many parts of Europe, and deriving its name from Chalcedon in 87 |