Asia Minor, where it was originally obtained. Agate, chrysoprase, carnelian, cat's eye, plasma, onyx, sardonyx, sard, flint, and hornstone, which are separately described under their respective heads, are all varieties of Č. Common C. is usually semi-opaque, of a milk-white colour, tinged with yellow or blue, and occurs in Fifeshire, the Pentland Hills, the Hebrides, Faroe Isles, and in Cornwall and other English localities. It was largely used for minute sculpture by the ancients, and at the present day seals, brooches, vases, &c., are made of it.

Chalce'donyx, a variety of chalcedony, with alternate stripes of opaque white and translucent grey.

Chal'cis, the capital of Euboea (Negropont), on the Strait of the Euripus, here 40 yards across, separating the island from the coast of Boeotia, but bridged over now, as it was also in ancient times. C. was a city of great antiquity, and is mentioned by Homer. It was one of the greatest of the Ionian cities, and sent out colonies to Macedonia, Italy, Sicily, and the Ægæan Isles. It had at first an aristocratic government of its own, but afterwards became tributary to Athens. Under the Macedonians and the Romans it rose to great importance, as it commanded the navigation between the N. and S. of Greece. After the Venetians had held it for three centuries it was taken by the Turks in 1470. C., now called Egripo (q. v.), a name which is a corruption of Euripus, is the only considerable place in the island. Pop. (1870) 6447.

Chalcis, a genus of Lacertilia or lizards, included in the family Chalcide, and distinguished by being covered with scales arranged in cross rows; those of the back being prominent or keeled, and frequently spinous, whilst the sides may possess folds of skin covered with scales. The eyelids are developed, the ears exposed; the tongue fleshy, short, and bifid at the top. These lizards occur in both America and Africa, and a few in Asia.

The name C. is also given to a genus of Hymenopterous insects of minute size, with nearly veinless wings, and bent antenna. The palpi are short, and the pupa destitute of a

cocoon.

Chalcog'raphy (Gr. chalcos, copper or brass,' and graphein, 'to write '), engraving on copper. See ENGRAVING.

Chaldæ'a. See BABYLONIA. Chaldee'. See ARAMEA. Chal'der, a dry measure, formerly used in Scotland, which contained sixteen bolls. See BOLL.

Chal'dron (Fr. chaudron, Lat. caldarium, 'a vessel for warm water'), an old dry measure, containing thirty-six heaped bushels, sometimes used in selling coal.

Chaleur' Bay, an inlet of the Gulf of St Lawrence, separates New Brunswick from the district of Caspé, receives the Ristigouche, extends from E. to W. for a distance of 100 miles, and has a maximum breadth of 20 miles. It receives its name (Fr. chaleur, 'heat') from its comparative freeness from ice in winter.

Chalif'erous Membrane. See EGG.

Chalk, Black, or Drawing-Slate, a kind of clay-slate, soft, black from the admixture of carbon, and used for drawing or writing.

Chalk, Red, a compact earthy clay, coloured with from 15 to 20 per cent. of oxide of iron, also called reddle. Chalk, French, a variety of soapstone or steatite, a mag

nesic silicate.

Chalk Rocks. See CRETACEOUS SYSTEM.

Chalk'ing the Door is, in Scotland, a mode of warning the tenants of burghal-tenements to remove. The principal door of the tenement is marked with chalk forty days before Whitsunday, the Scotch term for removal. A certificate of execution, subscribed by the officer and two witnesses, is a warrant for a decree of removal by the burgh court. If the tenant does not obey the decree, he may be forcibly ejected on the expiration of a charge of six days.

Challenge. See DUEL and JURY.

88

Chalm'ers, George, a historical antiquary and critic, of good family, was born at Fochabers in Morayshire in 1742. Educated at King's College, Aberdeen, he was trained to law in Edinburgh, but emigrated to America in 1763, and practised as a lawyer in Baltimore. A strong royalist, the revolutionary troubles compelled him to return to England, where he was appointed clerk to the Board of Trade in 1786. The remainder of his life was spent partly in erudite toil, and partly in miscellaneous pamphleteering. He died May 31, 1825. C.'s chief work is his Caledonia, an Account, Historical, and Topographical, of N. Britain (1807-24). It shows immense research, and the introduction is marked by a vigorous, and on the whole rational, conception of the state of Scotland ethnologically in the long and obscure period between the Roman invasion and the reign of Malcolm Canmore. The style lacks elegance and dignity, but its polemical tone gives it a factitious energy and liveliness. Of C.'s other productions, the most important is his edition of the Poetical Works of Sir David Lindsay, with a Life of the Author, Prefatory Dissertations, and an Appropriate Glossary (3 vols. 1806), which cannot be held to be superseded even by the later edition of Laing (2 vols. Edinb. 1871). His Lives of Defoe (1786), Ruddiman (1794), and Allan Ramsay (1800) are also noteworthy.

a

logian, Church leader, philanthropist, and social reformer, was Chalmers, Thomas, an illustrious Scottish preacher, theoborn at Anstruther, March 17, 1780. He matriculated as a student in St Andrew's University in 1791, became a licentiate of the Church of Scotland in 1799, having been admitted at an unusually early age, on the special plea that he was ‘a lad o' pregnant pairts,' and in 1803 was ordained minister of Kilmany, a sequestered parish in the E. of Fife. At this time he was engrossed in scientific studies, which he pursued with such success, that he felt warranted in becoming a candidate, successively, for the Natural Philosophy chair at St Andrews, and for the Mathematical chair at Edinburgh. In 1808 appeared his Inquiry into the Extent and Stability of National Resources. About 1811, after a severe illness, and while preparing the article Christianity' for the Edinburgh Encyclopædia, C. experienced great revolution in all his opinions about Christianity,' and this very great transition of sentiment' he attributed to the reading of Wilberforce's Practical View. As a result of this change, he abandoned his scientific pursuits, and put forth all his strength as a pastor and as a preacher of evangelical Christianity. In 1812, C. married Miss Grace Pratt. In 1814 he was appointed minister of the Tron Kirk of Glasgow, and during the nine years of his Glasgow ministry (from 1819 in the parish of St John's), he exercised a most commanding influence by the brilliancy and power of his pulpit oratory. His pulpit fame may be considered to have reached its height on the delivery of his famous Astronomical Discourses in 1816, and on his visit to London in 1817. All the world,' wrote Wilberforce, mad about C. Mighty London seems to do him homage.' 'The tartan,' said George Canning, 'beats us all.' During his residence in Glasgow, C. grappled manfully with the appalling ignorance and immorality of his populous city parishes, and indeed he accepted the incumbency of St John's on the condition that he should work 'his own parish in his own way,' and with the view of making, in opposition to the poor-law system of England, the famous experiment, in which he managed the whole pauperism of the parish down the pauperism of a population of 10,000. by a Church agency, and with an income of about £300 kept These great accepted the proffered chair of Moral Philosophy at St Andrews, exertions, however, were too much for his constitution, and he Edinburgh. His Political Economy appeared in 1832, and his whence, in 1828, he was translated to the chair of Divinity at Bridgewater treatise on Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitution of Man in 1833. 1835 and 1841, by his great exertions in the cause of church chosen Moderator of the General Assembly of 1832. Between churches, more than one-fifth of its whole complement, were extension, a sum of £305,747, 11s. 24d. was raised, and 222 added to the Establishment. In 1838 he delivered in London his brilliant course of lectures in defence of religious EstablishParty' on behalf of the Church's 'spiritual independence,' C. ments. Throughout the Ten Years' Conflict of the Evangelical was their resolute and unwearied leader; and on the formation of the Free Church, May 18, 1843, he was called to the chair of

C. was

its first General Assembly. He rendered it great service, especially by the constitution of its general Sustentation Fund, and he was chosen Professor of Divinity and Principal of its New College at Edinburgh. During his closing years of life, he planted in the West Port the territorial agencies that have since been so successfully employed both in Edinburgh and Glasgow in elevating the most degraded of our population. C. died suddenly at Morningside, Edinburgh, May 30, 1847. C. was elected D. D. of Glasgow in 1816, corresponding member of the Royal Institute of France in 1834, a Vice-President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1835, and Doctor of Laws, Oxford, in the same year. These and many similar honours attest the great reputation enjoyed by C. during his life, a reputation which his books, wise, eloquent, and powerful though they be, can scarcely be expected adequately to maintain. The fame of C., however, will not be affected by the good or ill fortune of his books. His fiery energy, his perfervid genius, his single-hearted devotion to philanthropic work, the nobility of his aims, the width of his sympathies, and the goodness of his heart, secure for his name a place in the brief roll of great representative Scotchmen. See Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Thos. C. (Edinb. 1849), by his son-in-law, the Rev. Dr Hanna. The standard edition of his works is in thirty-four volumes (Edinb. Edmonston & Douglas). Châlons-sur-Marne, the capital of the department Marne, France, on the Marne, the Marne-Rhine Canal, and the Strasburg Railway, 107 miles E. of Paris. It is old, irregularly built, and its ramparts are in great part destroyed, but it has many fine edifices, as the cathedral St Etienne, which was partly rebuilt in the 17th c., after having been burnt three times; the church St Alpin, dating from the 12th c.; the abbey St Pierre ; the church of Notre Dame, &c. By the side of the canal of the Marne is a splendid public park (Jard) of 19 acres. The river is here crossed by a fine stone bridge. C. has manufactures of woollens, serge, bonnets, rope, &c., and a large trade, chiefly in Champagne wine, of which it exports annually about 1,000,000 bottles. Pop. (1872) 15, 186. To the N. E. of the town is the Camp of C., formed by the Emperor Napoleon III. in 1856, and occupied successively by Canrobert and MacMahon during the late Franco-Prussian war. The Germans took possession of C. without opposition, August 21, 1870. C. is the ancient Catalaunum or Durocatalaunum of Gallia Belgica. Here Aurelian, in 274 A.D., overthrew Tetricus, and in 366 Jovinus defeated the Allemanni. The neighbouring plain (Campi Catalaunici) witnessed, in 451, the grand repulse of Attila and his Huns by the Roman and Visigothic forces.

Châlon-sur-Saone, a town in the department Saône-etLoire, France, 35 miles N. of Mâcon by railway, on the Saône, here crossed by a magnificent iron bridge. It has a fine church of the 14th c., and is an active industrial centre. There are several distilleries, foundries, and a Government naval yard supplementary to that of Creuzot. The river is navigable for steamboats from this point, and C. does a large trade with the Mediterranean and the Atlantic in wine, iron, and cereals. Pop. (1872) 18,951. C. is the ancient Caballonum or Cabillinum, and was a flourishing place during the Roman occupation.

Chalybæ'us, a genus of birds inhabiting New Guinea, and noted for the brilliant metallic tints and lustres of their plumage. Skins of C. Paradisæus, with the feet cut off (to imitate the condition in which Birds of Paradise (q. v.) skins are generally imported), have been sold as skins of the latter birds. The bill in the genus is thick, and the nostrils are pierced in a broad Cere (q. v.).

Chalybæus, Heinrich Moritz, a German philosopher, born 3d July 1796, at Pfaffroda, in Saxony, and studied at Leipsic. After teaching for several years at Vienna and Dresden, he was in 1839 appointed a professor in the University of Kiel. After the Slesvig-Holstein war he had to resign his professorship, but in a short time he was restored. He died at Dresden, 22d September 1862. Of his numerous works, the most important are the Historische Entwickelung der Speculativen Philosophie von Kant bis Hegel (Dresd. 1836, 5th ed. 1869), of which there is an English translation by Tulk (Lond. 1854); System der Speculativen Ethik (2 vols. Leips. 1850); and Fundamental Philosophie (Kiel, 1861).

Chalyb'eate (from Gr. chalups, 'iron') Waters, a form of mineral water, containing salts of iron in solution, the most

common being that in which carbonate of iron is held in solution by an excess of carbonic acid. On exposure to the air such a water gives off carbonic acid, and deposits ferric hydrate in a state of fine division, which is the cause of the ochry appearance around such springs. C. W. have a kind of inky taste, and are in high repute for their tonic and invigorating effect on invalids. They are very numerous, Tunbridge Wells being an excellent example of the carbonated series.

the Siphonate division of that class, and forming the type of the Cha'ma, a genus of Lamellibranchiate mollusca, belonging to family Chamida or Clam-shells.' They possess inequivalve shells, which are attached to fixed objects. The mantle is closed, and the foot is of very small size. These shells occur chiefly in warm and tropical seas. The genus Diceras is also included in the family Chamide.

Chamade'. See PARLEY.

Chamædo'rea, a genus of palms containing upwards of forty species, natives of the forests of tropical America. The reed-like stems are used for walking-sticks, and the other unexpanded flower-spikes by the Mexicans as a potherb, under the name of Tepejilote.

Chamæ'rops, a genus of palms, the most northern of its order containing ten or twelve species, natives of Asia, Africa, America,

and Southern Europe. They are generally dwarf in habit. C. humilis is the only European species, extending, however, only as far N. as Nice. From the leaves are made hats, brooms, baskets, thatch for houses, &c., and a fibre which is used as a substitute for horsehair. The coarsè fibre at the base of the leaves is mixed by the Arabs with horsehair, to weave their tent-covers out of In Algeria a paper and pasteboard are made of it, and in Spain, cordage and sailcloth; in France, where it is known as African hair, carpets are wove out of it. C. fortunei is a Chinese species.

Chamærops-Palmyra Palm.

The coarse fibre from the base of the leaves is used in China to make hats, and the capes worn in wet weather by the rural population. The genus will grow in the open air very well as far N. as Edinburgh.

Chamala'ri, or Chumalarhi, a lofty peak of the Himalayas, on the N. W. frontier of Bhotan, some 80 miles N.E. of Darjiling, has a height of 23,944 feet. On its W. side rises the Ammochu river, a tributary of the Brahmaputra.

Chamber-Counsel, a barrister, or advocate, who devotes himself chiefly to giving legal opinions, seldom pleading in

court.

Chamber of Commerce. Associations of merchants and others interested in trade, for the promotion and benefit of trade, are so called. Of foreign origin, these institutions have in Great Britain proved themselves especially valuable to the country. The Edinburgh C. of C., instituted in 1785, and incorporated by royal charter in 1786, was the first public body in the country which petitioned Parliament for an adoption of free-trade principles and for the abolition of the corn-laws. It also originated the movement which ended in the telegraph service being taken over by the state. This chamber consists of about six hundred members. The Manchester C. of C. was established in 1820. Its exertions in the cause of free-trade and their splendid results are of world-wide renown. (See FREE TRADE.) Chambers of Commerce now exist in all the great mercantile towns of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1860 there was established an association of Chambers of Commerce of the United Kingdom.' The C. of C. endeavours to attain its object by the consideration of all pro

Cham'bre Ardente' was the name of a court established in 1535, in connection with an inquisitorial tribunal, by François I. Its function was the extirpation of heresy. It was famed for the severity of its punishments, the most common being, as its name would lead us to suppose, death by burning. It was very active under Henri II., whose entry into Paris in 1549 was signalised by a burning of heretics. In 1679 it was employed in investigating into the reports of poisoning cases which arose on the trial of the Marchioness Brinvilliers, after which time it does not appear to have ever again become active, and has long been abolished.

Chambre Introuvable (which may be translated 'Nonsuch Parliament'), was the ultra-royalist Chamber of Deputies which met on the second restoration of Louis XVIII. under the presidency of Lainé, and which, led by De la Bourdonnaye, De Villèle, and De Bonald, surprised everybody by its extreme reactionary policy. The Chamber acted as if resolved to stamp out the possibility of revolution, and had the services of men who afterwards occupied a very different position. Thus the bill to make more summary the jurisdiction of the Prevôtal courts was under the charge of Royer-Collard and Cuvier. A cruel law on sedition was also passed, but it was the famous debates on the amnesty question that most clearly showed the spirit of the implacable Right-hand Royalists, who opposed the Cabinet, and insisted upon extending the classes of exception from the amnesty, and upon the policy of confiscation and banishment of the regicides implicated in the Hundred Days. De Serre distinguished himself by moderate counsels in this debate. The leading clerical champions on the right hand were De Castelbajac (who had a bill to take all restrictions from mortmain), Lachèze, Murel (who wished the clergy to recover the custody of civil records), De St Romain (who attacked the lay character of the universities), De Bonald (who called for the abolition of divorce), and De Blangy (who opposed the continuance of official pensions to married priests). Then the outrages against Protestants broke out in the departments of the S.; Generals Ramal and Lagarde and Marshal Brune were murdered, and it required all the efforts of Pasquieu to secure a condemnation of the murderers in the local tribunals. It was no doubt the spirit of the Right-hand Royalists (as expressed in a pamphlet by De Vitrolles, replied to by Guizot) that made it impossible for the Government to pardon Marshal Ney. When the Chamber met after adjournment, it was decidedly unpopular. Its chiefs got such nicknames as Contractor for Burials, Gravedigger, Rattlesnake, Dispenser of Holy Water, &c. Accordingly, in spite of the pleading of Chateaubriand, in his Monarchie selon la Charte, the King dissolved it, 14th August 1816.

Chameleon, a lizard genus belonging to the family Chameleontida, and represented by the familiar C. Africanus of the N. of Africa and Egypt, so long celebrated for its power of altering the hue of its body when irritated or alarmed.

Chameleon.

The eye

is large, and covered by a circular lid formed of the united two lids, and perforated in the centre for the admission of light to the pupil. The tongue is long and fleshy, and can be protruded with great celerity, so as to catch the insects upon which the C. feeds. The tail is rounded and prehensile. The body is compressed, and covered by small granules or scales, so as to resemble shagreen. The legs are well developed, the toes being situated so as to form two equal and opposable sets in each foot, and are thus adapted to aid the creature in its arboreal life. The lungs are of very large size. The C. is confined to the warmer regions of the eastern hemisphere, and is slow in its movements. Various species, besides the familiar one above noticed, are known, and of these, C. Petersii and C. bifurcus, or the large-naped C., are familiar forms. The latter occurs in Madagascar, India, &c., and is so named from the muzzle in the males being deeply cleft. These reptiles have long been celebrated for their power of changing the hues of their bodies. The usual colour of the C. is green, although in Britain it appears to alter to a yellowish or greenish grey. It may even range through the shades of

green, blue, violet, and yellow-all of which are hues allied to green. The mode in which the change of hue is effected is similar to that seen in the Cephalopoda or cuttlefishes, and consists of colour-cells (chromatophora), which exist in the deep layer of the skin; and by altering the position of these cells, seen through the transparent upper skin, the characteristic colour changes are produced. The influence of light and of the nervous system have much to do with the changes of colour.

Chameleon Mineral is the name sometimes given to manganate of potash (K,MnO4) on account of the curious changes of colour which take place in its aqueous solution if left to itself. These changes in the tint of the solution are caused by the gradual decomposition of manganate of potash (solution of which is green) into permanganate of potash (solution of which is carmine coloured). 2KMnO4 + MnO2 + 4KHO

3(K2MnO4) + 2H2O Permanganate Binoxide Water.

Manganate of Potash.

Caustic Potash.

of Potash. of Manganese. C. M. is readily obtained by fusing together equal weights of binoxide of manganese and caustic potash.

Cham'fering (Port. chanfrar, 'to slope or hollow '), cutting or paring off the edge of anything originally right-angled. If the new plane is besides rendered slightly concave, it is called a hollow chamfer. In Gothic architecture there are frequently ornamental terminations to a chamfered surface.

Cham'ier, Frederic, an English novelist of French extraction, was born in London in 1796, and died November 1, 1870. He may be described as an inferior Marryat, like whom he served in the navy before he began literary labour. He wrote many novels, some of which, such as Ben Brace, The Arethusa, Tom Bowline, Jack Adams, &c., have been very popular, both here and on the Continent, and a Review of the French Revolution of 1848.

Chamiss'o, Adelbert von, properly Louis Charles Adelaide de Chamisso de Boncourt, an eminent German lyric poet, was born, 27th January 1781, in the Castle of Boncourt, in Champagne. His family emigrated in 1790 to Prussia. C. was at first (1796) page to the Queen of Prussia, then served in the Prussian army, but as a Frenchman by birth would not fight against his former countrymen; took part in an expedition (1814) to discover the N. W. Passage, and finally obtained a situation in the Botanical Garden of Berlin, where he died, 21st August 1838. C. was great as a naturalist, but still greater as a poet. His Gesammelte Werke were published at Leipsic in 1836-39 (5th ed. 1864), and are marked both by humour and a romantic imagination. They embrace ballads, songs, &c. Humour is the chief characteristic of his popular fiction of Peter Schlemihl (7th ed. 1860), which is an amusing story of a man that loses his shadow. See Hitzig's Biographie von C. nebst Briefwechsel, edited by Kurz (2 vols. 1869).

Chamois (Rupicapra Tragus), a genus of Antelopes (q. v.), of goat-like conformation, inhabiting the precipitous steeps of the Alps, Pyrenees, and other European mountain ranges. The horns are peculiar in their conformation, rising straight from the top of the head for some inches, and curving suddenly backwards to form a pair of hooklike processes. The colour is a yellowish-brown on the upper parts, and lighter below, the spine or back ridge being marked by a black stripe. The winter fur is darker than the summer coat. The face is marked by a dark band of colour, which runs from each angle of the mouth to the eye, and around each eye forms a dark circle. The horns are of black colour, and have a polished appearance. When full-grown, these forms may average 2 feet in height, the horns being from 5 to 8 inches long. The food consists in summer of mountain herbs and grasses, and in winter of sprigs of fir, pine, and juniper trees. The flesh has a peculiar flavour, owing to the diet. The skin is largely employed in the manufacture of the well-known C.-leather, used for a variety of purposes in this

Chamois.

and other countries. The hind-legs are larger than the forelimbs, and aid the C. in ascending steep cliffs, whilst the rudimentary hoofs placed on the back of the feet assist it in gaining a firm foothold in its perilous descents. These animals are very agile and wary. They are exceedingly acute and sensitive, both through the senses of sight and smell. They live in small herds, and on one member of the flock devolves the duty of watching for enemies, and of giving due alarm. C.-hunting is one of the most dangerous of Alpine pursuits,

Cham'omile. See CAMOMILE.

Cham'ond, St, a manufacturing town in the department of Loire, France, on the Janon, 7 miles E. N. E. of St Etienne by railway. It has large iron-foundries, silk-factories, and works for the construction of steam-engines. Pop. (1872) 12,382. C. possesses the ruins of a château built by the Counts of Forez. Cham'ouny or Cham'onix, also Cham'onis and Cammuni'ta (Lat. Campus munitus), a wild and beautiful vale in the department of Haute Savoie, France, about 13 miles long and 2 broad, lies far away from all high roads, at a height of 2150 feet above the Lake of Geneva. The village of C. on the Arive (pop. 2415) is much visited by tourists. From the vale of C. the ascent of Mont Blanc is usually made.

Champagne', a former province of France, was bounded N. by the Ardennes, E. by Lorraine, S. by Burgundy, and W. by the Isle de France and Picardy, and had an area of 9997 sq. miles, and a pop. of 1,238,720. It is in great part a plain, from 300 to 600 feet high, and is divided into a dry and wretched district in the N. E. (C. Pouilleuse), and the fertile region of the S. W., famous alike for the production of flints and of the wine to which the province gives name. Its capital was Troyes on the Seine. C. formed a part of ancient Gallia, conquered by Cæsar, and later fell into the hands of the Franks, but was ruled from the 11th c. by semi-independent counts. was annexed to the French crown by the marriage of Philippe IV. with Joanna, heiress of Navarre, in 1284, and was incorporated formally by Philippe VI. in 1328. During the campaigns of 1792 and 1814, C. was the principal scene of the fighting. After the Revolution the province was split into the departments of Ardennes, Aube, Marne, and Haute-Marne, and parts of Aisne, Yonne, Seine-Marne, and Meuse. See Arbois de Jubainville's Histoire des Ducs et des Comtes de C. (5 vols. Par. 1859-63).

It

Champagne Wine, an effervescent wine, named from the district of France in which it is prepared. C. is chiefly manufactured from the same dark grape-the black pineau used in making Burgundy, and is kept uncoloured by having the husks removed before the fermentation of the must or juice sets in. After the must has undergone the first fermentation, it is carefully clarified by isinglass mixed with a proportion of sugar, and in this state it is bottled up and fastened with wire as it comes into the market. It is then put to undergo a further fermentation in rooms having a rather high temperature, and the progress of the fermentation is marked by the liqueur assuming a ropy appearance, and by the occasional bursting of a bottle occasional bursting of a bottle through the pressure of the carbonic acid gas which is generated. After the wine has again cleared itself the bottles are uncorked, and the yeast which has been made to collect under the cork is removed. A small quantity of sweetened liqueur is then added, varying in quantity according as the wine is desired 'sweet' or 'dry.' It is now corked, wired, covered with the tinfoil, and labelled, ready for the market. The most esteemed brands of C. are Veuve Clicquot, Moet et Chandon, Mumm, Roederer, and Heidsieck. There is very good reason to believe that a large proportion of wine sold as C. is spurious, and either prepared from fruit juices other than the grape, or by artificially aerating

still white wines.

Cham'party, or Champerty (lit. 'partnership; Fr. champ parti; Lat. campus partitus, land shared or divided'), in English law, is a bargain with a plaintiff or defendant to share the land, debt, or other matter in dispute if he prevails at law, the Champertor agreeing to carry on the suit at his own cost. The contract is not only void in equity, but it is criminal. No one is permitted to assign any interest or contingent profit of a matter in dispute, or to enter into an agree

ment to share it with any one, on consideration of his recovering it and bearing the expenses. In Strachan v. Branchi a gift from an heir-at-law resident abroad, on the death of his ancestor, ignorant of his rights, to one who had given him information and supported him in recovering his rights, was set aside, as was also a bond for £2000, payable in the event of success, in consideration of £1000 advanced for carrying on the suit, Lord Roslyn observing that the transaction savoured of C. The analogous term in Scotch law is Pactum de quota litis (q. v. under PACTUM ILLICITUM).

Champignon, the French name for mushrooms, but in Britain only applied to Agaricus (Marasmius) Oreades—the Scotch Bonnets'-which is one of the edible species.

Cham'pion (either Qld Eng. cempa, 'a warrior'-compare Ger. kämpfen, 'to fight' or the Lat. campus, “a field'—i.¿, of battle), a man who, according to agreement, fights a public combat on his own or another person's account. Champions. are mentioned as early as the reign of Charlemagne. In the early part of the middle ages the judicial combat was fought by a C. on behalf of women, children, aged and infirm persons, and also of ecclesiastics. It was a profession, and was not considered an honourable one. But later on in the ages of chivalry a knight who entered the lists on behalf of any one incapable of selfdefence was called a C., and then the name began to carry with it more dignity. In England the ancient office of C. of the crown was held by the family of Dymocke from the twentieth year of the reign of Edward I. A member of this family appeared in Westminster Hall at every coronation in complete armour, and proclaimed, by herald, a challenge to wage battle with any man who should three times gainsay the title of the new monarch. This form was last gone through at the coronation of William IV. by Mr Henry Dymocke, at whose decease, without male heirs, the office became extinct.

Champlain', a lake between the states of New York and Vermont, with its northern_extremity in the Dominion of Canada, named after Samuel C., who discovered it in 1609, and emptying itself into the St Lawrence by the Richelieu. It is about 120 miles long, and varies in breadth from 1 to 15 miles; is navigable for ships of 100 tons, and is connected at its southern extremity with the Hudson by a canal. C. abounds in salınon, shad, and other fish. The chief towns on its banks are Burlington on the E., Whitehall at the S., and Plattsburg on the W.

Champoll'ion, Jean François, surnamed Le Jeune, was born 23d December 1790, at Figeac (department of Lot). He showed great precocity in the acquisition of Oriental alphabets and in drawing medals. His first idea was to reconstruct the geography of Egypt under the Pharaohs, by collecting the names of districts and towns found in Greek and Latin authors, and by detecting the Coptic element in such names as had been overlaid by Hebrew and Arabic. In 1807 he made at Paris the acquaintance of Milan, De Sacy, and Van Præt, and got access at the College of France to the valuable Coptic manuscripts which had been taken from the congregation of the Propaganda at Rome. He worked at a Coptic grammar and a dictionary, which he believed would give a key to the hieroglyphics, and in 1808 by a comparison with a demotic or enchorial papyrus, he identified in the Rosetta inscription the twenty-five letters mentioned by Plutarch. Next year C. became Professor of History at the new University of Grenoble. In 1814 appeared L'Egypte sous les Pharaons (2 vols.), the geographical-descriptive part of a work in which he intended to treat of all Egyptian civilisation. After the second Restoration he added Geography to his chair. In 1822 he read at Paris the brilliant essays on the Demotic and the Hieratic writing, maintaining that the latter was a shorthand equivalent of the full hieroglyphic, and his letter to M. Dacier on the phonetic hieroglyphics used in the inscription on Egyptian monuments of the titles, the names, and surnames of the Greek and Roman sovereigns. In the latter he claimed to have deciphered the names Ptolemy, Alexander, Berenice, Arsinoe, Cleopatra, and the word autocrator. In 1824 appeared his chief work, Précis du Système Hiéroglyphique, which is accompanied by a volume of plates and explanations of the three elements into which he resolved Egyptian writing--the figurative, the ideographic, and the alphabetic. C. afterwards visited, and in various forms wrote upon, the Drovetti collection at Turin, the Salb collection at Leghorn, the papyri in the Vatican Library, and the royal collections