made to lie far beneath chalk, and is, consequently, supposed extend to the thickness often found in the coal strata, are to be a formation of a much earlier period. Calculations spread both laterally and vertically over a very considerable have accordingly been made, as to the probable depth of coal space. They are distinctly proved to be a formation subsebeneath chalk; assuming, as a fact, that the dip of the coal quent to the chalk itself; and appear, like all flints, to be the strata continues in the directions we now find them to lie in petrified calcareous fluids drained from the whole mass in the different coal fields. Such calculations will be elsewhere course of pressure. It is not easy to account for the manner shown to lead only to error and confusion. in which the strata of the chalk were sustained, and kept

The following passage in an able article of the Edinburgh asunder, whilst the petrifaction of this juice was going on; Encyclopædia, on the geology of England, will serve to but this, like, many other such difficulties in mineralogy, does show, in the clearest manner, the general nature of the coal not affect the general question; nor ought the dykes of the fields of our own country; and all similar fields may be tra- coal fields to be advanced in opposition to the general princiced to similar situations, by extending our views on a suffi-ple of formation which we have now been considering. ciently large scale, and not being misled either by the dip of the strata, or by the nature of the embedding rocks.

POSTSCRIPT NOTE TO CHAPTER VIII.

"The principal coal fields, in the northern part of this district, lie in Northumberland and Durham; the West Riding of Yorkshire; and in Derbyshire. The strata of coal termi- While these sheets are preparing for the press, and while nate a few miles north-east of the town of Derby, but make an opportunity is still in my power, I cannot permit it to pass their appearance again to the south of the Trent, in Leices- without a few remarks upon an important paper on the Coal tershire, near Ashby de la Zouch: on the south-east, they Series, lately read before the Yorkshire Philosophical Soterminate at Charnwood Hills; while, on the south-west, a ciety, and which has now been published in the last number thick bed of coarse breccia and gravel separates them from the of the London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine (for coal fields in the county of Warwick."-England, p. 713. Dec). This paper is upon the subject of "The Lower Coal "Although, as we have already remarked, the red sand- Series of Yorkshire." It presents one of the many steps in stone rock cuts off the coal fields in general, yet, in some the received systems of geology, which are slowly, but surely, parts of Lancashire, and the western counties, detached coal advancing towards that very point for which I am now confields are surrounded by it. All the strata of coal, and iron- tending; and the few remarks I have to make upon it, will, I stone, in South Wales, are deposited in a lime-stone basin, trust, go far to prove, that the hasty conclusions of the conthe form of which is an irregular oval, in length 100 miles, tinental geology, on which our own schools have all been and, where broadest, 18 or 20 miles. The upper stratum of founded, have led to much contradiction and error, on this coal is at the depth of 50 or 60 fathoms; the succeeding highly important branch of our subject. strata lie deeper, and are accompanied with paralleled strata of It has, for some time, been one of the well known facts of iron ore: the lowest strata at the centre range are from 600 geology, that, as trees and herbs could not, in any common to 700 fathoms deep." (This depth has, of course, not been circumstances, or by the common laws of nature, be depositfound from actual measurement: 700 fathoms is not far from ed in a tranquil state in the bed of the sea, the extensive a mile; and it may be doubted, as is elsewhere shown, whe- deposits we now discover in the form of repeated and alterther any secondary formations extend to so great a depth.) nating beds of coal, MUST have been deposited in fresh water; "In this basin there are 12 strata of coal from three to nine and, from this assumption, it has followed, that, wherever feet thick, and eleven others from eighteen inches, to three vegetable substances have been discovered, in the form of feet, making in all 95 feet of coal. The lime-stone that forms regular strata, even though occasionally accompanied with the substratum of this mineral deposition, appears on the sur-shells, such formations have received the geological name of face all along the boundary of the basin, and is supposed to have LACUSTRINE deposits, as having resulted from the long-conan underground connexion, from point to point."-Edin. tinued action of the laws of nature in inland lakes of fresh Encyclop. England, p. 714.

water.

Nothing can be clearer than this account: and it appears This idea has, in a great measure, arisen, as I have elsecertain, that as in the case of the Paris basin, this lime-stone where had occasion to show, from the deep-rooted error, that formed the bed of the antediluvian sea, on which the dilu- we are now inhabiting the same dry land which existed vial deposits of coal, clay, iron-stone, and free-stone, were before the Mosaic deluge; and so misled have we in general alternately laid at the same period. This being admitted, been, by this delusion, that, wherever shells have been found we have a natural means of accounting for the various incli

nations in the parallel strata of such diluvial deposits. For, to the actual composition of flint, I consider it clearly to be a petriin the first place, they must have followed any inclinations fied fluid drained from the calcareous mass, in a moist state. The that might have existed in the bed on which they were laid; perfect fluidity of flint, at one period of its formation, is distinctly and, in the next place, we cannot conceive so great a mass of proved, by the fossil shells often completely embedded in its subvery moist materials becoming drained of their moisture, and stance, or preserved in the most perfect manner, attached to its surface. Shells, in a very complete state of preservation, and of the settling down into a dry and hard state, by their own weight, most fragile nature, are often found neatly filled with pure flint, even without subsiding more in one place than in another; and we when at a distance from any bed, or nodule, of that matter, from can thus account for those derangements in coal and other which we might have concluded them to have been accidentally filled, strata which always occasion trouble, and often much ex- like melted lead into a mould. This fluid matter, however, evidently pense to the miner; and are called by the technical and did not follow the general laws of fluids, by retaining a horizontal provincial names of troubles, hitches, nips, slips, &c. surface; for I have, in my collection of fossils, some shells of echini, If any additional proof were wanting of the formation of which I found to be half filled with chalk, and half with flint; the latter, with a rounded surface, and in a sloping position. The flint, coal having been occasioned by terrestrial vegetable substances, in these specimens, is, also, quite unconnected with the only two deposited by marine action, we should find it in the presence orifices by which the liquid matter could have entered from without; of the impressions of fish and shells in the strata of coal in it would, therefore, appear to have originated within the shell. And Leicestershire. It may be said, that, as coal is called by ge- this idea is further confirmed, by finding, in other beautiful and perologists a fresh water formation, these aquatic fossils most fect specimens, filled with flint, that the substance is gently rounded probably belong to fresh water lakes; but this reasoning is not outwards at the orifices, as if pressed in a thick gummy state from within; instead of being hollowed inwards, as lead is, when poured consistent with numberless other facts, exhibited in the coal into a mould from without. I have also found, occasionally, that strata, and which fully prove their connection with the sea. those nearly spherical nodules found in the chalk, are sometimes There occurs also in the coal districts another difficulty, hollow, and contain, in the cavity, a yellow calcareous liquid, of the which is not so easily accounted for, although we may form consistency of cream, and perfectly tasteless. The elongated and some indistinct idea of it. This is, the solid dyke of a dif- irregularly pointed nodules, are often found in the form of hollow ferent mineral, which sometimes completely intersects the tubes; within which, are sometimes minute crystals, and at other times, the matter has shot into long and delicate fibres, like hair, custrata, and appears to have been injected, as it were, into ariously interwoven. All these appearances in flint, distinctly prove fissure occasioned by the subsidence above explained. We it to have been a fluid, subsequent to the deposition of the chalk in discover something analogous to these dykes, in the remarka-which it is now found; and that it may, perhaps, properly be termed ble beds of solid flint, which intersect the strata of chalk, in the juice of the calcareous mass, in the course of dessication, conevery direction.* These dykes of flint, though they never verted into stone, by those unaccountable chemical laws, which now govern the mineral world. The cause of the singularly irregular cavities in which the flints have been formed, and of their horizon

During a residence of some time in a chalk district, on the coast, tal stratification in the chalk, must, for the present, remain subjects I have had an opportunity of paying some attention to the formation of conjecture alone; but, like the dykes in the coal strata, or the of flint; a subject which has never yet been duly explained, and which grottoes and fissures in lime-stone rocks, they do not in the least will, probably, long continue a problem in mineralogy. With regard affect the general question.

in the neighbourhood of the coal strata, it has been assumed, take place, without the action of the tides and currents, we as a matter of course, that they had belonged to such ani- must continue to look upon such vague and contradictory mals as then inhabited the fresh water. It must, also, be theories, as nothing better than empty dreams, which leave kept in mind, that, as there is often a separation of several the mind in a confused and bewildered state, without the hundred feet between the extreme limits of the beds of coal, reason being able to attain any sound or solid ground upon and that, within that space, there are often many seams of which securely to repose.*

CHAPTER IX.

Organic Remains.—Evidences derived from them.—Erroneous Theories of Continuous Stratification. Diluvial Fossil Remains. Diluvial Origin of Coal.-Unfounded Theories on this Subject.-The Belgian Coal Fields.-Tropical Productions in Polar Regions.-Buffon's Theory.-High Importance of the Evidence of Fossils.-Natural and unavoidable mode of Transport.—Instances in Proof.—Buoyant nature of Bodies after Death.-Rate at which they might have been Transported.-The thick-skinned Animals floated longest.

that invaluable deposit, cach assumed as having been the result of immense periods of time, as we may have naturally concluded, from the invisible (because visionary) progress of such deposits in the lakes of our own country, or in the rest of Europe; we are unavoidably led, by the adoption of such a theory, to discard history, and to adopt hypothesis; laying ourselves open, in such instances as I am now about to quote, to the vacillating effects, arising from distinct contradiction. Mr John Phillips, the author of the interesting paper above alluded to, says: "The lowest portion of the Yorkshire coal strata, resting upon the mill-stone grit, produces comparatively but a small quantity of coal; and this, in general, not of a good quality. But no part of the coal-field is more curious in its geological relations, or more worthy of close study, by those who desire to penetrate into the history of the production of coal. We may define this lowest coal series very simply, by saying, that it is included between the millstone grit of Bromley, beneath, and the flag-stone of Elland, Having thus found a further corroboration of the truth of above, having a thickness of 120 or 150 yards, and inclosing, Scripture, in examining the appearances still existing on the near the bottom, two thin seams af coal, one, or both of them, general surface of the earth, we now come to the consideration workable; and several other layers scattered through its mass, of a most important part of the evidence, by which the record too thin to be worth working. The most regular and con- is still further supported, and in a still more remarkable detinous of all these coal seams, reaches, in a few places, to gree: I mean, that of the fossil remains of animal and veg the thickness of 27 or 30 inches, but is generally only about etable productions, so abundant in the secondary and diluvial 16. It is worked at various places, near Leeds, Bradford, formations. This most interesting part of our subject is Halifax, and Sheffield. much too extensive to be here entered upon at great length;

"It would have been impossible to have traced so thin a but as many of the theories of geology have been formed on seam of coal, along so extensive a range, without some pecu- the evidence of fossils, viewed under a false light, it becomes liar facilities--some points of reference more distinct than the highly necessary to take a general view of the subject; and varying quality of the coal, and the still more irregular this general view may, perhaps, prove sufficient for our prefluctuations of the SANDSTONES and SHALES. This coal seam sent general purpose: for it must be evident, that a few facts, is covered by a roof, unlike that of any other coal bed, above unequivocally proved, and supported both by reason, and by the mountain limestone, in the British Islands; for, instead of history, are of more value in leading to a just conclusion, containing only the remains of plants, or FRESH WATER SHELLS, than a thousand theories, however plausibly and ably comit is filled with a considerable diversity of MARINE SHELLS, posed, where both reason and history are directly contrabelonging to the genera Pecten, and Ammonites; and, in one dicted.

locality, near Halifax, specimens of Orthocera Ostrea, and The observations of the last half century, in various parts scaly fish, have been obtained from certain nodular argillo- of the world, have served to give us a tolerably extensive calcareous concretions, called Baum Pots, lying over it. view of this wide field for inquiry: but when we consider, The uniform occurrence of the Pectens, and Ammonites, that geology is but yet in its youth, and is only gradually through so wide a range, over one particular thin bed of coal, rejecting the wild fancies of its more childish years; and, while they are not found in any other part of the coal strata, further, when we remember the comparatively few spots is one of the most curious phenomena yet observed concerning the upon the surface of the whole earth, where we can have free distribution of organic remains, and will, undoubtedly, be found access to a view of the interior structure in its upper strata, of the highest importance in all deductions relating to the cir-it may, perhaps, be worthy of admiration, that our knowledge is already so extensive as it is. As every day, however,

cumstances which attended the PRODUCTION OF COAL.'

99

Mr. Phillips then proceeds to give sections of the whole adds to the number of ardent inquirers who bring in their series, which, as in other coal fields, consists of alternating stores of information, to add to the common stock, we may strata of sandy and argillaceous deposits, exactly similar, hope, in a short time, to obtain much more correct and cerin their general character, to what I have already had occa-tain data than we even yet possess, in order to secure the sion to exhibit; and containing, in several instances, the foundations of the whole structure, which have been, hitherto, fossil remains of shells and plants. but too generally laid in the sand.

He then continues: "In the upper coal series of Northum- In tracing the strata of the earth's surface, we discover, berland, Durham, Yorkshire, and Derbyshire, are several most first, that no organic substances exist in the primitive rocks; nor extensive layers of bivalve shells, commonly called muscle- do we meet with any marine remains until we rise several bands, and referred to the genus Unio, from which the FRESH-stages in the secondary strata. As we mount, however, toWATER origin of those coal deposits has been inferred. It was, wards the surface, the quantity of shells increases in some of therefore, with extreme gratification, that I found, in passing the strata, while in others they are almost entirely wanting, through Mr. Rawson's colliery, at Swan Banks, in the midst as we may observe is the case in the visible parts of the preof the series above described, Two layers of these shells, one sent seas; but as we approach still nearer to the surface, and of them about the middle of the series, considerably ABOVE THE examine the rocks and soils which were formed at the period PECTEN COAL; the other near the bottom, and considerably of the deluge, we find a vast increase in the fossil remains, BELOW that coal." and also a much greater variety in the species that have be

Paris chalk basin.

Mr. Phillips then reasons upon the "PERIODICAL return of come embedded. the marine element into its ancient receptacle, after THAT had In the course of our examination into the laws of nature, been, for some time, occupied by FRESH WATER, and its few in- by which secondary formations have been, and are still in habitants," in much the same way by which the theories the act of being formed, we found that it could not be exof Cuvier attempt to account for the stratifications in the pected that we should discover any fossil remains in the transition rocks, and but few in the earlier secondary formaAfter what has been already said on the more consistent tions; because, in the first case, the rocks so called, having and historical source of such deposits, it is only necessary, in been formed from the first fragments of the primitive earth, this place, to add, that so unquestionable a proof of MARINE (by the depression of a part of which, the bed for the "gatheragency, in various parts of the coal basins of England, must ing together of the waters" was first formed,) were arranged shake to their foundations the theories of LACUSTRINE depo- by the currents of the ocean, before that ocean became thickly sits; and, until it can be shown in our own lakes, or in those peopled; and, in the second case, because the empty shells of the European continent, not only that such extensive

ligneous deposits are now going on in their beds, but, also, * For further most important evidence on this subject, see the that distinct STRATIFICATION can, under any circumstances, Supplementary Note to Chapter XI.

of the tribes, as they perished, would be comparatively few, otherwise; and that even when mixed, they are limited to no for many years after the rivers and the ocean had been at determinate kind or number. If to this, we add the uncerwork in forming secondary deposits. As time advanced, tainty of the strata themselves, the chances of a concurrence however, the sea would naturally become loaded with the become so extremely small, as rather to make us wonder shelly remains of past generations; and we should, therefore, that such a notion could ever have been adopted. Many expect to find a proportioned increase contained in the tena-strata have been formed in independent cavities, and are not cious soils which have since been hardened into stone. likely to have corresponded in any respect; and at this moAs we have seen that the laws which are in constant action ment, one species, the oyster, or the muscle, for example, is in the waters, have a power of assorting and arranging dif- now an inhabitant of submarine alluvia of entirely different ferent materials, in different and separate situations, we should characters in different seas, or even in different parts of the expect to find shells more abundant in one formation than in same sea. There is no reason why the fossils of the Paris another; and as we now find recent beds of sea sand of the basin should be identical with those of the English; because most equal grain, and of vast extent, without almost a vestige the living animals may have differed. If the bottom of the of entire sea shells, we cannot be surprised on finding that the English channel should hereafter become an elevated stratum, same law had obtained in the early sand-stone formations, the variety of its fossils would confound all this reasoning. and that freestone rocks are consequently, in general, desti- "Neither can the antiquity of beds be proved by the same reatute of these fossil remains; while the calcareous rocks, which, sons, unless we could also prove an absolute succession of species, when soft and moist, must have been of a tenacious and or genera in creation; and unless these recurrences were more muddy consistency, retain shells in extraordinary quantities. constant and regular than they are, and than we have shown We have also found that there was little probability of dis-them to be, in former parts of this essay. We might, besides, covering the remains of either fish or quadrupeds in the to these add many more objections to the probable value of gradually formed secondary rocks, because, in the case of this criterion, from general considerations; but it cannot be such deposits, the dead of both classes must generally have necessary. With respect to its value in minor cases, when been devoured by the voracious tribes of the sea, before they the strata in one deposit, such as that of England, are to be could have been covered up and protected. identified, the objections may diminish in number, yet, even It has been too long and too generally the custom with geolo- then, these proofs are not to be relied on, as must be evident gists to reason upon the age of particular formations, from the from what has just been stated with respect to living colonature of the fossils which they may be found to contain. nies, now in the surrounding seas. That which would not We have thus arrived at many erroneous conclusions with identify modern submarine strata of mud, must not be expected respect both to the actual age of our globe, and to the gradual to prove the identity of ancient strata of rock, formed under the production of new species in the animal kingdom. As the same circumstances. That it may afford occasional assistance, whole science of geology may be considered to be founded will not be denied: but, to use a wrong method of solving diffion the evidence of organic fossils, it is of the highest im-culties is not only to deceive ourselves, but to establish or confirm portance on entering upon this subject to endeavour to correct false theories, and to stop the progress of all useful investigation. our evidence before coming to a final conclusion. And it is, "It is evident, that to prove the identity of an universal therefore, highly necessary to discover whether the theory of stratum, one species, or set of species, must have existed all continuous stratification is well founded; and also, whether over the ocean where its materials were deposited. To prove a distinct identity of fossil species can, in general, be traced the correspondence of strata less universal, a more limited in the same formations in every situation. On this most im- degree of the same improbability is required. To prove that portant part of the subject, I cannot produce stronger reason- particular fossils determine the character and place of any ing than has already been made use of by one of our most particular stratum, every species, or set of species, should have distinguished writers on geology and mineralogy; and the changed with the superposition of a fresh stratum: besides author of the very able article on Organic Remains, in the which, it should never either have pre-existed or re-existed. Edinburgh Encyclopædia. Although my opinions, on many But it is surely unnecessary to add to these arguments against parts of these subjects, differ widely from those expressed this theory. We must, therefore, here drop the subject, and by this able writer, yet we here so completely coincide, that examine, in as few words as possible, by an enumeration of I shall not hesitate to introduce his line of reasoning in this species and genera in particular strata, how the fact really place. stands. Conchologists, and those geologists who have studied "It is now necessary," says he, "to examine a question this subject, will be at no loss to extend a comparison, which which is strictly geological; namely, the nature and value we shall render as distinct as possible, consistent with the of the evidence which fossil remains afford towards the in- necessary brevity; because a few deficiencies in the evidence are dentification of strata, whether in the same, or in distant sufficient to render the whole nearly, if not entirely, useless; countries. Too much stress seems to have been lately laid and we need scarcely say how much we may be misled by on their utility in this respect; a natural consequence of the thus trusting to what is imperfect or groundless. enthusiasm which commonly attends the discovery of a new "The lias of France, Spain, Italy and England, a stratum, engine. It is, in some degree, connected with the opinion or set of strata, well identified by their position with regard which has been also held respecting the necessary identity to the red marl, contains different fossils, in these several of certain distant strata, and of an universal or very general countries. Echini are found from primary slate up to chalk; deposition of particular rocks. The general question, as far as are tellinæ, turbines and chama. The belemnites, which as it is peculiarly of a geological nature, we dare not here are common in the chalk of France and Ireland, are rare in enter upon, as it would lead us to a very long train of investi-that of England; and the fossils of the chalk of Maistricht gation; but we may state it, not only as our own conviction, are almost peculiar to it. The vegetable remains that are But as now a prevailing opinion among all geologists, that no found in the clay of Sheppey, do not occur in that stratum in proof of such UNIVERSAL formations, as they have been called, other parts of England. Crocodiles, a fossil not a little conexists. The arguments which would prove that opinion, from spicuous, occur in the lias, in the Portland oolite, in the green a presumed identity between certain strata mutually, and that sand of England, and in the blue clay. Crabs, which are of the fossils which they contain, and which, of course, presume found in one of the earliest secondary strata, to wit, in the on a succession of fossil bodies, as definite and constant as mountain limestone, also exist in the chalk, and in the London the corresponding successions of the strata, are open to many clay; as far asunder as they well can be. Madreporites, entoother objections, which we must now proceed to examine. molites, pentacrinites, patellæ, ostreæ, ammonites, terebra"Even admitting, that in two parts of the globe, which tulæ, gryphites, pectines, anomiæ, and numerous others, we shall here suppose polar and equatorial, the same strata, which it would be superfluous to name, are found in nearly as to the materials and constitution of the rocks themselves, all the strata: and so far is it from being true, that there are should exist, and be found also in the same order, it is not to be even any predominant associations of these, that they occur, expected that the same fossil bodies should occur in them, unless intermixed in every possible manner, as will be more fully the differences of climate were considered an object of no moment. evinced in the general list hereafter given. It seems, thereIf, in a weaker degree, yet the same objections hold good in fore, quite unnecessary to pursue this subject further, since it those cases where the positions are far less discordant, as, must be sufficiently plain that the evidence in question is wortheven between the Mediterranean and the British channel, at less, or worse."-Edin. Encyclop. Organic Remains, p. 753. present, we do not find a correspondence in the living species. I do not think it necessary to attempt to add to the powerful In every situation, were we even to consider the animals reasoning from facts, contained in the above extract. It must only, the same reasons against such identity, among distant be evident to every candid inquirer, that it shakes to its very fossils in particular strata, exist; as we know that the different foundation the whole theory upon which the indefinite age of species inhabit different places irregularly, in colonies, or our globe is assumed; and we thus distinctly advance in the VOL. II.-L

line of reasoning suggested by the earliest history of the At other times, the wood is half carbonated, like the surturearth, and by the action of the laws of nature every where brand of Iceland. It is also a general remark in all coal disdisplayed around us. tricts, that the stratification which attends that fossil subBut it is in the monuments left us by the deluge, that we stance, always terminates, and is ill defined and disordered should chiefly look for the most abundant fossil remains of when it approaches any mountain range of primitive or early every kind; and we must begin the consideration of these re-secondary rock. This is an effect which we should naturally markable monuments, by again alluding to what has been look for, when we consider the nature of the subsidence of a already said in the last chapter, respecting the origin of the moist mass of such extent, on being left to drain of its sustrata amongst which coal and other fossil productions are perfluous waters. For while that mass subsided more in one invariably found. It has already been stated, that by far the place than in another, and thus produced what, in the miner's most probable origin' of the coal formations, may be traced phrase, are called troubles, dykes, and slips, we can easily sup‐ to the ruins of the whole vegetable world, at the period of pose great disorder to have been occasioned where the mass the deluge; and in considering the subject of fossil quadru- touched the edges of the basin within which it was deposited; peds from tropical climates, we shall find sufficient reason to and where friction would prevent regularity in the subsidence account for the numerous palm trees and other tropical plants for some considerable distance, and would consequently throw which have been found to exist in some of the coal fields. the whole stratification into disorder. That these troubles, Some writers have endeavoured, indeed, to account for the dykes, and slips, are occasioned by such subsidence, is clearly coal formations, by the idea of submarine forests of sea weed, proved by the well known circumstance in coal mines, that, which they have supposed to exist in the depths of the ocean. even in such cases, each stratum usually retains its parallelThough there can be little doubt that many unknown wonders ism, with regard to those immediately above and below it. exist in these depths, and, amongst them many species of We must feel satisfied, that, at the period of the deluge, marine animals, with which we must for ever be unacquainted, the whole forest scenery of the globe, with the roots, branches, and which, as fossils, we may look upon as extinct; yet we and foliage entire, must have been floated off upon the waters, have no reason, from the specimens of marine vegetation oc-matted together in groups, and forming immense islands, casionally thrown upon our coasts, to suppose that any thing which must have been overwhelmed in confused masses, by like trees exists there. It may, indeed, be with confidence the force of the waves, embedded at various depths, and covaffirmed, that no unexceptionable specimen of a marine plant, ered up by strata, of various earthy and sandy composition, embedded in rock, has ever yet been produced. The ground all which strata, having been subsequently placed above the for supposing that all these numerous strata in the coal dis- level of the present seas, either by the depression of the fortricts, ought, like those of the basins of Paris and of London, mer continents, or by the elevation of the bed of the former which contain no coal, to be included in diluvial effects, is, sea, (or by a combination of both these effects,) have been that from the number of months during which all things were since drained of their former moisture, and have assumed the fully submitted to the laws which act within the bed of the solid mineral substance which we now find so valuable. ocean, these laws had sufficient time to class and arrange the It may be urged, in opposition to this idea, that such massenormous quantity of moveable materials so abundantly pro- es of vegetable substances would continue to float upon the vided by that destructive event: and however difficult we waters for any length of time, and therefore could not be emmay find it, to bring our minds to the conviction, that beds bedded at the depths we now often find the coal strata. But of many hundred feet might have been formed in the course we are assured by daily experience, that though vegetable of a few months, we ought to correct our confined notions on matter may float for some time upon the waters, it does not such subjects, by well considering the large scale of the whole thus continue sufficiently buoyant for an indefinite period; earth, by which we have hitherto been measuring the phe- but, on the contrary, becomes at length so completely satunomena on its surface.

35 strata of different coloured sandstone at various depths

16 strata of clay and clay slate

16 strata of coal, of various thickness, from 2 feet to 6 inches

Yds. ft. in.
10 0 0
177 1 0
72 2 8

10 0 2

Yards 270 0 10

rated with water, as to lose its buoyancy, and to sink to the bottom, like any other heavy substance. We have, amongst many familiar proofs of this, one directly in point, which is described as now in progress, on a considerable scale, in some of the American lakes; where such collections of timber are, in many instances, being formed near the embouchures of the rivers which flow into them from the forests, that the extent, both superficially, and in depth, appears truly astonishing, and has been described as the incipient formation of future coal fields.

In the late survey of the boundaries between the United States and Canada, we have some interesting information on this subject. About 1000 streams of various sizes are described as emptying themselves into Lake Superior; and as We thus find the strata, in this great coal field, composed sweeping into it great quantities of drift timber, which form exclusively of such sandy and argillaceous materials as were islands near the mouths of the rivers. Within a mile of the naturally to be looked for in the accumulations from the di- shore, this lake is, in many places, 70 or 80 fathoms in luvial waters, during a continued action of several months. depth; and within eight miles, it has been sounded 136 fathOn examining sections of other coal districts, as in Stafford-oms. The thickness of this lignite formation is, therefore, shire, and in Scotland, we find the same constant repetition probably very considerable.

of sand-stone, slate-clay, fire-clay, argillaceous iron-stone, &c. These accumulations are often at some depth under water; without, in any instance, intervening formations, such as and it is probable that in the course of their long passage chalk, containing shell fossils, or others obviously of slow down the American streams, the trees become saturated with and gradual marine formation, indicating a long period be- moisture, and arrive in the lakes in a state which causes them tween the deposition of the different strata of coal. It has to sink, and accumulate in the manner described. In our own been already observed, that the coal fields are generally, country we are so familiarised to floating fir timber in all our more or less, in the form of a basin; and as the upper edges sea ports, that we are too apt to consider all timber as buoyant of these calcareous, or sand-stone basins, are in many in- in a high degree. But when we extend our views to the imstances traced round the whole circumference of the deposit; mense forests of the whole earth, and consider the condition and as the same materials are, in such cases, found to form to which this forest scenery must have been reduced by the the bed on which the coal and other superincumbent strata action of the deluge, we must be convinced that, on so great repose, we have the strongest possible reason for concluding a scale, the buoyancy of the great floating masses could not that the whole formed a valley or basin in the bed of the an- have long continued; and that various succeeding masses tediluvian sea, and received its contents, while that sea was must have sunk in the diluvial waters, at successive short depositing the whole movable matter of the former continents, periods, sufficiently distant, however, to admit of considerable with which, we feel satisfied, its waters must have been intervening accumulations of earthy or sandy sediments, becharged. In these deposits large trees are often found, de-tween the strata which were destined to the formation of coal. tached from the great strata of coal, and extending from one We feel satisfied that the plants and leaves now found in stratum through a variety of others, which is sufficient proof such abundance, impressed upon the strata in contact with the of these strata, at least, having all been formed at one period. coal, and for a few feet distant from it, must have been emSome of these fossil trees are so perfectly petrified, that the

roughness of the bark is distinctly seen, as well as the in- * For the most conclusive evidence on this part of our subject, see terior circles, which denote the yearly growth of the timber. the Supplementary Note to Chapter XI.

event.

bedded in a fine, soft clay, or mud; because their most tender the neighbourhood of Bristol, near which place it dips to the stems are well preserved, and are often unbroken to a consid-east, beneath the red marl. In this country its geological erable length and as many of these plants have been recog-situation is between it and the mountain limestone. Now, nized as belonging to tropical climates, they must be judged by its geological situation being beneath the red marl, we may. the same evidence by which the tropical animals now found observe, that there are very many formations, or strata, supin uncongenial climates can be proved to have been floated, posing them all to dip together towards the east, intervening, by the currents of the ocean, from a southern to a northern between THE London clay and THE coal. And when we recollatitude.* If, then, it can be proved, beyond a doubt, that the lect that the outgoing of the nearest coal is upwards of 100 mammoth of the frozen regions, never could have been an in- miles from London; that the wells there pass upwards of 130 habitant of those regions, where its remains are now found feet through the London clay, before we reach the sand preserved in ice; we must, upon the same evidence, conclude which lies upon the chalk, from which sand the water of the that all tropical fossil productions now found in climates un- London wells springs; if again we consider that, between THE suited to their growth, were lodged in their present beds by sand, and THE coal, the numerous strata extend on the surface, the same powerful agent; and that that agent was the deluge over a tract of country about 40 miles in length from east to described by Moses; because neither from history, tradition, west, as from Hungerford to Bristol; and if, moreover, we imnor facts, have we evidence of any other such destructive agine all these strata to be compressed beneath the sand which lies upon the chalk, into one-twentieth part of what their outIn Iceland, and also in the lately discovered Melville Island, goings occupy on the surface; we shall, even then, be compelled in the arctic regions, remains of large trees have been found, to suppose, that the strata of coal are more than TWO MILES bemore or less converted into coal; and in some cases the stems neath the bottom of the London clay. How near the truth this are only partially carbonized. In both these cases, they are calculation may be, or whether the coal, and all the intervenof a size that bespeaks the produce of a very different climate ing strata between it and the chalk, pass away beneath our feet, from that in which they are now found; and they must, there- we have no reasonable ground for concluding."* fore, like other southern products, in northern latitudes, be Thus, because "the coal near Bristol dips towards the east attributed to the action of the currents at the period of the three feet in six," there may be a possibility of the existence deluge. of the same seam, at the depth of several miles under the Amber may also be mentioned as an antediluvian fossil, deep London clay. For it is too much to allow a loss of found more frequently in the northern, than in the southern nineteen twentieths, in the calculation, by the compression of regions. It is not certainly known to what species of tree the strata; for, instead of being compressed, they must be this gum must formerly have belonged; but it is evident, that supposed to be expanded, to occupy so much more room than it is the resinous juice of a tropical plant, in which insects they would all have done, had the whole series been found have become entangled in the same manner as in similar at Bristol. It seems scarcely necessary to remark upon the cases, on modern trees. That it should be found more fre-extravagance of theory contained in the above passage. Inquently in the north than in the south, is an additional evi- stead of taking London for our point of calculation, we have dence of the effects of currents; as from its great buoyancy only to extend the idea a few hundred miles still further to in water, it would float for any length of time, and become the east of Bristol; and, including in our calculation all the embedded in the diluvial soils, from which it has subsequent-strata of secondary rocks, upon which coal reposes at Brisly been washed out by rivers, carried again to the sea, and tol, and following up the same line of reasoning, upon the thrown upon our coasts, or is found floating on the waters. It continuous stratification of the earth, what would be the is, however, often found in its diluvial bed in France, and in result of our calculation? What a deformed and irregular Germany; and on many parts of our own eastern coasts, it is mass would a section of the globe present, under such a found associated with jet, or bituminized wood. theory? It would, in some rough degree, resemble the

The above line of reasoning respecting stratification, must, effect of Indian turning on a watch: the primitive nucleus no doubt, appear strange to all those who coincide with the of the globe would be entirely absorbed by the irregular following curious passage, to be found in a work intended segments of circles of secondary formation; and we should "for the use of young persons, who may desire to become be utterly at a loss to represent the strata which lie in a acquainted with the elements of Mineralogy and Geology." vertical position.

In treating of the general geology of England, and after ex- When such theories as the above can be proved, to deplaining the commonly received theory of general and regu-monstration, to be founded in reason, and supported by facts, lar stratification, this author proceeds thus: In fine, a view the page of the Mosaic geologist must, indeed, be forever of the geology of England assures us of the truth of the closed.

assertion with which we set out,—that order in regard to de- With regard to the comparative level of the extensive position is universally prevalent, and that this order is never chalk formation of the north of France, and the great coal inverted. Keeping in view this important fact, we, who re- field of Belgium, we have the most convincing occular deside in a country which is of the newest formation," (allud-monstration of that of the former being below that of the ing to London, or its neighbourhood,) "might amuse our-latter. For if we follow out the section of the chalk preselves with speculations upon the distance which any one of the sented to our view on the sea coast, proceeding from Calais more ancient strata dips beneath our feet. This can only be in an easterly direction, we find the cliffs becoming gradually done as a matter of curiosity, for we cannot even hope to ap-lower, as the whole country inclines to a lower level, until, proach the truth, because of the uncertainty whether the at length, the chalk dips from our view, and we are launched numerous strata to the west of us do, or do not, actually con- into that immense sea of level alluvial plain, of which Holtinue to dip towards the east, any considerable distance be-land and Belgium form but a small part. Now, when we neath the surface; and even if we were to assume this to be trace the borders of the great chalk formation in the north the fact, for the sake of amusing ourselves with a calculation of of France, proceeding inland from the neighbourhood of some sort, we should still be at a loss as to the probable thick-Calais, in a S. E. direction, we find, that, although, from ness of the several strata. Coal is one of the most important the unbroken state of that country, we cannot perceive the deposits, and therefore claims our consideration in as great, if actual dip of the chalk beneath the alluvial plains of Belnot in a greater degree, than any other. We find, then, that gium, yet we must feel convinced, from the section of the the nearest place to London at which coal is found, is in coast which we had previously examined, that we may assume that dip with as much certainty, as if presented to

The species of fossil found near the coal, which has been our view throughout the whole line. It is in this great allucalled Lepidodendron, is very abundant, and is sometimes found of vial plain, then, that we find, in the neighbourhood of Brusgreat size. Some specimens have been measured in the Jarrow sels, all those proofs of diluvial ruin, precisely similar to Colliery, from 25 to 50 feet in length: and in the Fossil Flora, a what are presented to our view in so many other parts of the specimen of this plant is mentioned, four and a half feet in breadth. world. We discover in great abundance, and at various The unbroken length of some of the coal fossils has been urged as

an argument against transportation, but without sufficient grounds. depths, the remains of elephants, and other tropical quadFor if we consider the great floating masses of vegetation which rupeds. We find, in great abundance, both coal and must, in numberless instances, have been bound together at the pe-limestone, without in any instance having to pierce the riod of the deluge, we may easily suppose that many of the reeds chalk, which we had seen disappearing under the diluvial or tough canes must have become deposited with the whole mass, in strata, with a gentle dip and inclination. Here, then, we an unbroken state. Amongst other vegetable substances found in have another convincing proof of the nature of the deluge, the mines of Northumberland, ears of barley, and leaves of pine- and of the great chalk formation having formed at least one apples, have been noticed, Sometimes large trees extend from one stratum, into another, one end of this petrified timber being of a dif

ferent mineral nature from the other.

*Phillip's Outlines of Geology, page 219.