From the Eclectic Review. REASONS OF THE LAWS OF ES; from the "More Nevochim" of onides. With Notes, Dissertations, and e of the Author. By James Townley, 8vo. pp. 434. Price 10s. 6d. 1827. HONIDES has long been a celebrated name sh literature. As a commentator and der of the Mosaic writings, and as a on Hebrew antiquities, this Rabbi holds guished rank; and his merit is supporthe testimony of the most learned authors ve treated on subjects of Biblical erudid Jewish legislation, who refer to him as hority of the highest character and imce. He was by birth a Spaniard, but is mes described as of Egypt, in which y he resided as physician to the Sultan, ere his voluminous works were princiwritten. Of these, the More Nevochim nost generally known and approved. It critical, philosophical, and theological intended to explain the difficult passages, s. parables, allegories, and ceremonies Old Testament, and comprises the expoof the grounds and reasons of the Mosaic which Dr. Townley has detached and ed in the translation before us. Though ntly referred to and copiously cited by n theological writers, it has never before red in an English version. The work riginally written in Arabic, and in the e of the Author, was translated into Heby his disciple, R. Samuel Aben Tybbon. in version of the More Nevochim by Jus, bishop of Nebis, was published in 1520 ris; and in 1629, a new Latin translation ted by the younger Buxtorf, was printed sil, with a preface, including a biographicount of the Author. To the version beis, Dr. Townley has added a copious apx of notes and illustrations, and has prebesides a brief memoir of Maimonides, rtations on, 1. The Talmudical and Rabal Writings. 2. The Zabian Idolatry. he originality of the Institutions of Moses. he Mosaic distinction of Clean and UnAnimals. 5. The prohibition of Blood. he typical character of the Mosaic Institu 7. The Leprosy 8. Talismans and tanic Figures. 9. Judicial Astrology. bbi Moses Ben Mainon, or Maimonides, d from the initials of his name Rambam, born at Cordova in Spain, in the year , or, according to some, 1133, A.D. He ars to have received his earliest education Jewish instructors, and prosecuted with ardour the study of the Mosaic law and the Talmudical and Rabbinical commentaries. Afterwards he became a disciple of the Arabian philosopher and physician, Averroes, and made acquisitions in learning which raised him to distinction among the chief men of the age in which he lived. He excelled in the knowledge of the Hebrew and Arabic languages, and was not only well acquainted with these and some other oriental tongues, but was as proficient in the Greek language, and read, in their originals, the works of Plato, Aristotle, Galen, and others. He was well skilled in logic, and in the mathematical and medical sciences. Averroes was suspected of defection from the Mohammedan faith, and, through the persecution of his opponents, was removed from his office of chief magistrate at Cordova; upon which Maimonides, to avoid the perils to which, from his devotedness to his preceptor, he found himself exposed, withdrew from Spain, and removed to Egypt. He settled at Cairo, where his genius and learning attracted the attention of the Sultan Alphadel, who appointed him his physician, and allowed him a pension. His daily avocations are thus described by himself. "I generally visit the Sultan every morning; and when either he, or his children, or his wives, are attacked with any disorder, I am detained in attendance the whole of the day; or when any of the nobility are sick, I am ordered to visit them. But, if nothing prevent, I repair to my own habitation at noon, where I no sooner arrive, exhausted and faint with hunger, than I find myself surrounded with a crowd of Jews and Gentiles, nobles and peasants, judges and tax-gatherers, friends and enemies, eagerly expecting the time of my return. Alighting from my horse, I wash my hands, according to custom, and then courteously and respectfully saluting my guests, entreat them to wait with patience whilst I take some refreshment. Dinner concluded, I hasten to inquire into their various complaints, and to prescribe for them the necessary medicines. Such is the business of every day. Frequently, indeed, it happens, that some are obliged to wait till evening; and I continue for many hours, and even to a late hour of the night, incessantly engaged in listening, talking, ordering, and prescribing, till I am so overpowered with fatigue and sleep that I can scarcely utter a word." pp. 15, 16. The time and the influence of Maimonides were devoted to the promotion of Jewish learning. Favoured by the Sultan, he was able to extend protection to the less fortunate of his brethren, and founded at Alexandria a seminary for his nation, which flourished for a period. His industry was great, and the chief fruits of it appeared in a digest of the Hebrew laws, collected from the Talmud, which he entitled "Yad Hachazakah," "The Strong Hand;" and in the "More Nevochim," which he completed in his fiftieth year. The publication of this work excited the most violent opposition from many of the who wore alarmed by science. engaged in the study of foreign languages and The Rabbins of Spain defended Maimonides against the Rabbins of France. Excommunications and anathemas were employed by both parties, one against the other; and the consequences of the controversy were becoming perilous to the Jews, when the Rabbins of France submitted, and revoked their censures and decrees. Maimonides died at the age of seventy, and was buried in the land of Israel. A general mourning of three successive days testified the honour in which he was held. the customs of another people. In the concise In the portion of the "More Nevochim" before us, Maimonides has treated with great brevity on the reasons of the Mosaic laws. Occasionally we perceive in his comments, the influence of Talmudical prejudices; but the instances in which it appears, are so few as to excite our surprise that a writer so profoundly versed in rabbinical learning, should have proceeded with so much sobriety in his explanations. Sometimes these are more fanciful than just; but they supply, as a whole, very grati-purity of morals, and to worship, in its varieties of time, place, offerings, &c. From this fying evidence of their Author's deference to the genuine methods of determining the im- class, we select the following remarks. port of Scripture. Dr. Townley has rendered a service to English readers by enabling them to peruse this part of a work of so much celebrity as the "More Nevochim," or "Teacher of the Perplexed," which has hitherto been accessible only to the learned, and the interest of which he has increased by the information emThe reader of this work, bodied in his notes. however, must not expect to receive from it very extensive or very profound knowledge of the subjects of the ancient Jewish legislation. They are considered chiefly in their religious connexions. The Originality of the Institutions of Moses, is the subject of Dr. Townley's third Dissertation. He acknowledges his obligations for the observations which it contains, to a treatise on this subject printed in Northumberland, America, 1803, and to Dr. Wait's Course of Sermons, preached before the University of Cambridge, 1826. On this question, there is not to be obtained the evidence which is necessary to the determination of every particular included in the inquiry. The Mosaic laws themselves furnish proof that some of their regulaAntions were founded on existing customs. cient usages were confirmed or modified in various instances by the Hebrew Legislator. It is reasonable to presume, that a lawgiver would not, in forming a national code, reject entirely the customs which he found established in the practice of a people. Many of the usages existing among the ancient Israelites, were doubtless of unquestionable excellence and utility; and it could not be necessary to discard or to change them: others were deeply rooted in the prejudices and habits of the nation, and these, we know, were continued, but with such checks and modifications as tended to their improvement. But the opposition of the Mosaic statutes, in the religious institutions and observances which they comprise, is too real and striking to admit of their being referred to the imitation or adoption of previously existing ordinances and customs. As a religious ritual, the Mosaic laws are sui generis, and contain the evidences of their being unborrowed from "6. If the heathen had any Temples before the time of Moses, which is uncertain, and not probable, they were constructed in a very different manner from the tabernacle or the temple of Solomon. We no where read of such divisions as that (those) of the Hebrew temple; of such a symbol of the divine presence as the covering of the Ark between the Cherubim, in the Holy of Holies; there was no table of shew-bread, nor such a candlestick as was in the holy place. The fire and the lamps, also, evidently had their use, as appointed by Moses but though sacred, there was nothing in them to divert the reverence of the worshipper from the invisible Jehovah. This could not be said of the perpetual fires, either of the Persians, or of the Vestals at Rome: these were debasing superstitions. "Both the Hebrews and the heathen allowed the Privilege of Asylum to those who fled to their temples. But, with the heathens, this was carried to a length equally superstitious and dangerous to the community; because, whatever was the crime with which any person was charged, the criminal could not be apprehended, and much less could he be punished, without incurring the vengeance of the deity who, it was supposed, protected him. (Potter's Antiquities, Vol. I. p. 201.) But no person, charged with any crime, was protected by flying to the altar of the Hebrews, except till the cause could be heard by regular judges; when, if he appeared to be guilty, he was ordered to be taken from the altar itself, and put to death Even the City of Refuge could not protect him who was found, upon inquiry, to have killed his neighbour with design. "8. Had Moses copied any thing from the heathen, he would probably have introduced something of their Mysteries, which were rites performed in secret, and generally in the light; to which peculiar privileges were annexed, and which it was deemed the greatest crime to reveal. The most remarkable of these Mysteries were the Eleusinian, which were celebrated at Athens every fourth year. Whatever these rites were, (and they were of a very suspicious it was made death to reveal them; and person, not regularly initiated, was prethis exhibition, he was put to death mercy. Vile as these mysteries must een, according to the habits of the iniyet it was taken for granted, that those d performed them, lived in a greater of happiness than other men, both bed after death.—Potter's Antiquities, Vol. | 9. thing like this can be found in the Inns of Moses. There was no secret in ebrew ritual. Every thing is described written law; and though none but the could enter the holy place, and none oly of Holies, besides the High Priest, thing that was done by them there, is as larly described, as what was to be done people without." pp. 54, 55. Mosaic distinction of Animals (Dissert. been treated of by Michaelis at considelength, and with his usual acumen. t in so early an age of the world," he ob,"we should find a systematic division drupeds, so excellent as never yet, after e improvements in natural history, to become obsolete, but, on the contrary, to 1 considered as useful by the greatest rs of the science, cannot but be looked as truly wonderful." This, however, is f the instances in which he thinks ancesusages were prescribed by Moses as exlaws. Clean and unclean, he considers as alent to usual and unusual for food. That listinction was admirably adapted to prothe design of the Lawgiver to keep the lites in a state of separation from other ns, is apparent. A cherished abhorrence e food which others eat, is one of the gest safeguards against the danger of coning familiarity with them, which can be ded. Dietetical considerations, it is not evident, were included in the reasons of distinction; the health of the body, espey in some climates, being better provided by the use of some kinds of food, than of r kinds. Moral relations may also be ined in the distinction; though it must be essed, that many of the explanations which been given of particular enactments of branch of the Mosaic statutes, are more iful than reasonable. Dr. Townley has ased a distinct section to the last class of ons, but without any enlargement of their ber, as we find them in preceding authors, any augmentation of their weight. The en hoof may be supposed to figure the disution of rewards and punishments, with ut as much propriety as appears in some er allegories which the Author has cited or rred to; but we cannot perceive in these mples, any proof of the moral purpose of the gislator in ordaining the distinctions on ich they are founded. The anti-idolatrous pical. On the permanency of the prohibition. we agree with him in opinion, that the supporters of the affirmative side of the question adduce a series of arguments, which, to say the least of them, are exceedingly plausible and deserving of attention. "The prevention of idolatrous practices," may be, perhaps, excluded from the reasons which we find assigned in the chapter before us, as being a local and temporary one. But if, among the moral reasons why blood was to be poured out, and not to be eaten, it appears that, by this means, the Israelites might be deeply and constantly impressed with the important truth, that God is the sole Author and Disposer of Life; this reason must be still valid, and the interdict as obligatory on all mankind, and at all times, as it could be binding on an Israelite. And if "the obligation remains inviolate," as Dr. Townley states, (p. 79,) the question cannot be, as he elsewhere represents, (p. 86,) sub judice,-undetermined. We notice this discrepancy, not for the purpose of raising the question relating to the prohibition of eating blood, into any undue importance, but that we may remark on the impropriety, of which an example is thus brought before us, of ascribing solemn consequence to a position, and then impairing the force of the representations on which it rests, by an admission of their dubiety. No contradiction can be more complete than that which these two statements exhibit. If an obligation remains inviolate, the practice to which it binds, cannot be of optional consideration. The prohibition of eating blood is more ancient than the date of the Mosaic legislation, and stands apart from the prescriptions of a religious ritual. It is a precept of Divine authority (Gen. ix. 4.), given to mankind without any accompaniments by which its obligation may be limited; and when introduced into the Hebrew code, it was not restricted to Israelites, but extended to all foreigners residing among them. (Lev. xvii. 10.) The Apostolic decision too (Acts xv. 20, 29,) must be regarded as of some moment in the determination of this question. The written Law, contained in the Pentateuch, is distributed by Jewish Lawyers into 613 precepts; which they divide into two classes: the negative, comprising 365 precepts prohibitory of unlawful things; and the affirmative, including 248 precepts enjoining things to be done. These precepts, Maimonides has arranged into fourteen classes; of which the following summary forms the tenth chapter of the present volume. "The first class includes those precepts which contain the Fundamental Articles of Faith. To which are added, those which relate to Repentance and Fasting. Of the utility of precepts of this nature, there can be no doubt. "The second class comprehends the precepts respecting Idolatry; to which belong_also, those relating to Garments made of different 544 due regulation of mankind, in order to promote the perfection of human society and conduct. "The fourth class embraces the various precepts respecting Alms, and Loans, and Debts; and those which are allied to them, as those which relate to Valuations of property; to Things anathematized; and to Judgments concerning loans and servants. The benefit of precepts of this nature, is experienced by almost every one; for a man may be rich to-day, and to-morrow he or his posterity be poor; and the man who is poor to-day may be rich to morrow. "The fifth class is composed of those precepts which prohibit injustice and rapine; the utility of which is evident. "The sixth class is formed of the precepts respecting Pecuniary Mulcts; as, for instance, those adjudged for Theft, Robbery, and Falsewitness. The necessity and advantage of all the precepts of this nature are easily perceived; for if rogues and villains were suffered to go unpunished, there would be no end to the number of rascals of this description, nor to the depredations they would commit. Remission or suspension of punishment in these cases, is not, as some have foolishly imagined, Clemency and Mercy; but rather Cruelty, Inclemency, and Political Ruin. True Clemency is what God has commanded; Judges and Officers shalt thou make thee in all thy gates.' (Deut. xvi. 18.) "The seventh class includes the precepts relating to Pecuniary Judgments, arising from the mutual transactions of trade and commerce; such as those of Lending, Hiring, Depositing, Buying, Selling, &c. The utility of precepts of this sort is very evident; for, as it is necessary that men should engage in mercantile concerns, and embark their property in them, so it is equally necessary that equitable rules should be established for the direction of trade, and for a just and proportionate valuation of property. "The eighth class comprehends the precepts respecting Holy Days; as, the Sabbath, and various Festival Days. The causes and reasons of them are given in the Law itself, which, as we shall afterwards show, teaches us that they serve, either for the confirmation of some article of faith, or for the recreation of the body, or for both. "The ninth class includes other parts of Divine Worship; as the recital of Prayer, the reading of the Shema, or, Hear, O Israel,' and various other acts of a similar nature, which all serve to confirm the doctrines of the Love of God, and what is to be attributed to Him, or to be believed concerning Him. "The tenth class contains the precepts respecting the Sanctuary, and its Ministers, Vessels, and Instruments. The utility of these precepts has already been noticed. "The eleventh class embraces the precepts concerning Oblations. We have also previously shown the necessity and peculiar propriety of these ordinances at the period when they were first enjoined. "The twelfth class comprehends those precepts which concern Pollutions and Purifica of which is to prevent ary; and to teach them that reverence, and "The thirteenth class is composed of the "The fourteenth class is formed of the pre- "There is also another division of the pre- whether affirmative or negative, the design of "Having thus indicated the different classes The spirit of the Jewish Laws is invariably in favour of the beneficial use of property, and was intended to cherish the feelings and exercise of beneficence. Maimonides, in treating of the precepts respecting Estimations, Lev. xxvii., remarks, (p. 223,) that "all of them have a tendency to lead men to liberality, and, instead of giving place to avarice, to contemn riches for the glory of God; the greater part of the evils and misfortunes which happen among men, arising from avarice, and ambition, or too great an eagerness to amass wealth." The same spirit pervades the laws of the Christian dispensation. Its provisions are all in accordance with humane and generous habits; and its precepts direct all who assume the profession which connects their hopes with its blessings, to do good to all men as they have opportunity. Covetousness, it denounces as idolatry, and declares, that no covetous man, who is an idolater, has any part in the kingdom of Christ. No vice is more the object of its reprobation, than avarice; no crime is more branded with ignominy, or threatened by severer denunciations of Divine displeasure.Selfishness of every kind is in direct opposition to its spirit; and no man can be more an alien from the temper which is in accordance with Christian principles, than he who gives place Tatoo many instances, however pecies of selfishness cherished and maIn Christian communities, there are und persons who, with ample means of good, perform no act of beneficence. us feelings and parsimonious habits are shonourable distinctions. No record beneficence is ever to be discovered. y up treasure for themselves, but are towards God. "No man liveth to " is a Christian maxim which they enbvert. The deception must be great, illusion strong, which can permit percose cherished habits are those of covet, to regard themselves as examples of an influence. In the Christian law, e no compulsory statutes, as in the Heode, which can be enforced to induce nce with its requirements; but no temnctions are to be compared with those Turnish the professors of Christ's religion -otives of conduct. Where those sance acknowledged, it is reasonable to exme proof of their efficiency. But how be believed that a professor of the an Faith is living in the expectation of _nited with those "who have done good," o" shall come forth to the resurrection '-whose temper and whose acts are a on of benevolent principles, and who, mple means of doing good, lives in sel, the slave of avarice? Why should De any hesitation in pronouncing upon racter as "condemned already?" From the Imperial Magazine. THOSE ancients deserved praise who e enlightened Christian knows well how s whose influence somet and effects of improving our understandings are so manifest; but observation shows, that however manifest, they are not always compulsory; and it is often important to bring to our minds known truths, that their impress may be deeper. For this reason, the following observations on some of the motives and influences of intellectual culture and habits may be acceptable. The effects of knowledge and intellectual habits are not separated in these remarks, because the habits referred to are acquired in the pursuit of knowledge. 2. Amongst the various lessons which man is taught by the economy of the natural world, the necessity of employing his faculties upon the proper subjects of their operation, in order to promote his happiness and exalt his nature, is not the least important. Animals of the inferior kinds have internal mechanism, which ministers to their vital energy; but they must seek the perfection to which they are destined to arrive, from sources external to themselves. They have pastures in which to riot or repose, and their various instincts are met at every turn of their course; otherwise, the energy would cease to command, and the mechanism to obey. The eternal Creator has ordained, that they should thus be connected with his other works, and has introduced them into circumstances to which their very being has a necessary relation. "Who hath sent out the wild ass free? or who hath loosed the bands of the wild ass? whose house I have made the wilderness, and the barren land his dwelling. The range of the mountains is his pasture, and he searcheth after every green thing." If we consider the planetary system, of which the earth is a part, we see the same principle of connexion exemplified in another and more extraordinary manner. Take, for instance, the circumstances which relate to our earth. Has she light and heat, and seasons, in herself? The answer to this question points to a source whence those blessings flow upon us. Yonder golden orbs, whilst they perform their illustrious rounds, each with its proper motion, according to certain laws, in certain periods, and beam mildly in the eye of man, are connected by invisible links of friendly attraction, and go on their way rejoicing in inutual fellowship. Another example of the dependence of one part of nature on another, is presented in the vegetable world. Faith drops into the ground seeds which are expected to spring up, and to become the children of a fruitful season; and warmth, moisture, and the virtues of the ground, are all necessary to produce such a result. It is thus with man. intellectual powers; and these must be exerHe possesses natural cised upon those means of improvement, those objects of attention with which he is environed, that they may be confirmed and matured. |