In Germany, Moreau penetrated into Bavaria: a negotiation was ineffectually entered into; the war recommenced, and the defeat of Hohenlinden (Dec. 3) led to the treaty of Luneville, by which Francis gave up more territory in Germany, and consented to the transfer of A. D. Tuscany to the duke of Parma.

1801.

1802.

The fickle tsar Paul had been gained over by the French. He detained the ships of the English, and prevailed on Denmark and Sweden to engage in an armed neutrality. The English, who considered their existence to depend on their maritime superiority, sent a large fleet to the Baltic, under sir Hyde Parker, to break up the confederacy. The Danes were first attacked; lord Nelson destroyed their line of defence before Copenhagen, and they sued for peace: the king of Sweden agreed to treat. The tsar Paul was murdered by conspirators, and his son Alexander was inclined to England. The king of Prussia, who had seized on Hanover, now declared himself ready to renew his amity with Great Britain.

An English army, under sir Ralph Abercrombie, had arrived in Egypt. Immediately on its landing a battle ensued, which the English gained with the loss of their general. Grand Cairo surrendered. Its example was followed by Alexandria, and the French agreed to evacuate the country.

Peace was signed at Amiens. .The English consented to give up all their conquests but Ceylon and Trinidad; the Ionian islands were to form a republic; Malta to be restored to the knights.

Affairs of Europe to the treaty of Tilsit.

Bonaparte was now declared chief consul for life. He restored the catholic religion, and gave new constitutions to France, Genoa, and Switzerland. A force was sent to St. Domingo, where Toussaint l'Ouverture, a negro, had erected a republic. That chief was treacherously seized and sent to France; but the French were unable fully to recover the island.

A. D.

Disputes arising respecting the fulfilment of the treaty 1803. of Amiens, the war was resumed. Hanover was invaded and reduced by the French; Holland was dragged into the war, and immediately lost her colonies. In St. Domingo the French power was finally overthrown, and 1804. Dessalines made chief of the republic.

Bonaparte at length ventured to assume the imperial dignity, and the princes of Europe mostly acknowledged their new associate, who insulted and domineered over the greater part of the continent.

The following year, after bestowing a new constitu- 1805. tion on Holland, Napoleon made himself king of Italy, adding the Ligurian republic to his kingdom. This last act of injustice induced the emperors of Austria and Russia to enter into a confederacy with Great Britain, and the glorious victory gained by Nelson off Trafalgar (Oct. 21) over the combined fleets of France and Spain, gave spirits to the allies; but the French poured over the Rhine, and drove back the Austrians. At Ulm 20,000 Austrians surrendered. Vienna was entered by Napoleon the Austrians and Russians were completely defeated at Austerlitz (Dec. 2.) Francis lost courage, and concluded a treaty at Presburg, by which he gave up more territory, including Venice, acknowledged the king of Italy and two new kings, namely, those of Bavaria and Würtemburg.

:

The French invaded Naples, and Joseph Bonaparte was seated on the throne of that country. A victory was gained at Maida (July 4) by the English, and the Calabrians rose; but the power of the usurper was too great for resistance. Holland was also made a kingdom for Louis Bonaparte. At the command of Napoleon, his two new German kings, and some other princes, detached themselves from the Germanic body, and formed the confederacy of the Rhine, in alliance with France. The king of Prussia, who had been encouraged to seize Hanover, finding that in some late negotiations between France and England its restoration had been offered, and otherwise disgusted with his friend the emperor, rushed

precipitately into a war: he imprudently gave the chief command to the duke of Brunswick. The French advanced with rapidity. A Prussian army of 6000 men was defeated at Saalfeld. Near Jena and Auerstadt (Oct. 14) the Prussian and Saxon army of 110,000 men was attacked by that of the French of 150,000, and defeated. Erfurt was taken; prince Hohenlohe and his army surrendered at Prentzlau: Berlin was entered. The king of Holland conquered to the Weser: Jerome Bonaparte subdued Silesia: general Blücher and 9400 men capitulated at Ratkau: the Poles were excited to rise. The Russians, who were now advancing, met and defeated the French at Pultusk, and repulsed them at Golomyn. At Berlin, Bonaparte declared the British isles in a state of blockade, and, by what he called the continental system, prohibited all intercourse with A. D. them.

1807.

1808.

The Turks now shared in the war. The Russian emperor foolishly quarrelled with the Porte, and overran its northern provinces. An English fleet fruitlessly menaced Constantinople, and an ineffectual attempt was made on Egypt.

The war was renewed in the north, and a desperate but indecisive battle was fought at Prussian Eylau; Dantzig was taken by Lefévre. The allies sustained a defeat at Friedland (June 14), which was followed by the capture of Königsburg, and the treaty of Tilsit, which deprived the king of Prussia of one third of his dominions, and erected the kingdom of Westphalia for Jerome Bonaparte.

Affairs to the treaty of Vienna.

An expedition, little creditable to England, was sent out against Denmark, a power with whom she was at peace. Copenhagen was bombarded, and all the ships and naval stores carried away. A rupture ensued between Russia and England.

The demands made by France on the regent of Portugal were so unjust, that that prince, at the desire of

A. D.

the British cabinet, departed for the Brazils. Portugal was occupied by the French. Intrigues were set on foot in Spain; the king, Charles IV., resigned in favour of his son Ferdinand. The royal family were decoyed 1808. to Bayonne; both father and son were terrified into abdication, and the crown transferred to Joseph Bonaparte. Large bodies of troops had already been sent into Spain, and no opposition was dreaded; but the people rose in all quarters, and proclaimed Ferdinand VII.: the French fleet at Cadiz was obliged to surrender, as also the army of Dupont at Baylen. Saragossa was heroically defended against the troops of Joseph, who at length raised the siege.

The Portuguese rose also against the French. A British army landed and defeated the French general Junot at Vimeiro (Aug. 21.). By a convention made at Cintra, the French evacuated that kingdom. sian fleet was taken in the Tagus.

A Rus

In the north of Europe, Sweden was hard pressed by the Russians and Danes. The conduct of Gustavus bordering on insanity, he was the next year dethroned, and his uncle made king in his place.

The French were victorious in Spain, defeating Blake at Reynosa, and Castanos at Tudela. Napoleon arrived, and Madrid was taken. An English army, under sir John Moore, had advanced as far as Salamanca; but it was forced to retreat. At Corunna it was attacked (Jan. 16.), and general Moore mortally wounded.

Encouraged by the resistance made by the Spaniards, the emperor of Austria resolved anew on war: it commenced in Bavaria. Napoleon having driven back the Austrians at Eckmuhl, advanced rapidly and occupied Vienna. At Aspern and Essling, after dreadful slaughter on both sides, the victory remained with the Austrians. The battle of Wagram terminated in favour of the French.

A most ill-conceived project of creating a diversion in
Holland was formed by the British cabinet.
An army

of 39,000 men, under the earl of Cathcart, sailed to

F F

1809

A. D.

1810.

1811.

Walcheren, and took Middleburg and Flushing; but a large force being collected at Antwerp, and a fever breaking out among the troops, nothing further could be effected by such a waste of lives and treasure.

The emperor Francis was now constrained to make peace, with additional loss of territory. In the preceding year, Selim III. had been murdered, and Mahmood, the present sultan, was seated on the Turkish throne. Peace was concluded between England and the Porte.

Progress of the Peninsular War.

The French were now masters of Spain to Old Castile. Saragossa had stood a second siege with less success than formerly, 20,000 of its defenders being said to have perished. Marshal Soult entered Portugal, and took Oporto. Sir A. Wellesley advanced against him, and drove him back into Spain. The Spaniards defeated marshal Ney at San Payo in Gallicia. Sir A. Wellesley entered Spain and defeated the French at Talavera de la Reyna (July 28); but the enemy being reinforced, and the co-operation of the Spaniards not to be depended on, he fell back. Gerona was taken by the French, after a gallant defence. One Spanish army was defeated at Ocana, and another at Alba de Tormes.

An army of 30,000 Portuguese was raised and paid by the British government. The French army approached Portugal, took Astorga and Ciudad Rodrigo, and, under Massena, passed the frontier and reduced Almeida. At the pass of Busaco they were repelled. A fortified line was made from the Tagus to the ocean, behind which the allies were posted. Massena feared to assail it: after a month's inaction he fell back to Santarem.

In the south Seville was taken by the French; but Cadiz, now the seat of government, was secured against them.

Massena at length commenced his retreat, closely followed by the allies. A sharp action occurred at Fuentes d' Honor, after which Almeida surrendered. Badajoz