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humble birth, but military talent, placed himself at their head, and achieved their independence. The succeeding Arsacides, as the kings were named, enlarged their dominions, which gradually extended from India to the Euphrates, from the Caspian to the Arabian sea. When the Romans became masters of Lesser Asia, proximity produced enmity, and the Parthians were the only people who resisted Rome with success. Crassus, who led the first Roman army over the Euphrates, was defeated and slain. In the civil wars of the Romans they also took a share, siding with Pompeius against Cæsar; and with the latter's murderers against Octavianus and Antonius. Ventidius, the general of the latter, gave them a decisive overthrow.

The remaining history of the Parthians offers only, externally, continued wars with various success against the Romans; internally, the usual series of murder, usurpation, and cruelty, which characterises the monarchies of Asia. The twenty-ninth of the Arsacides was driven from his throne by Artaxerxes, a descendant of the ancient line of Persia ; and a new dynasty, that of the Sassanides, so named from Sassan, the founder's father, was established.

Egypt.

Egypt was the most fortunate of the provinces in the character of its governor. Ptolemy, son of Lagus, was a man of prudence and moderation: his first object was to form there a Grecian state without oppressing the original inhabitants. Peace was necessary for the execution of his judicious plans, and he never, but when constrained, took part in the quarrels of the other governors. After the battle of Ipsus, to the gaining of which he had mainly contributed, he also assumed the title of king. He then turned all his thoughts to the benefiting of his kingdom; he beautified Alexandria, built the Pharus light-house, encouraged every kind of trade, collected a library, and invited learned men from all parts to Alexandria. His empire included Egypt, Libya, Cyrene,

part of Arabia, Palestine, and Coelosyria; and flourished each day more and more, in consequence of his wise regulations and just government. Ptolemy II., named Philadelphus, trod in the footsteps of his father, and equalled or excelled him in his patronage of learning. He much extended and facilitated the trade to India, by repairing the canal from the Nile to the Red Sea; and, still more, by forming the harbour of Berenice on that sea. Ptolemy III., Evergetes, imitated his father and grand- B. c. father, and closed the series of the virtuous Ptolemies.

221.

After the death of Evergetes, there reigned in Egypt ten degenerate descendants of Ptolemy Lagus. Discord agitated this royal house, like others; murders were perpetrated for empire. The constant interference of the Romans alone preserved it from dissolution. With their consent, and by the will of his father, the last Ptolemy espoused his sister Cleopatra, and shared his empire with her. Driven from Egypt, she sought the protection of Cæsar, who re-established her as sole ruler. After his death, she united herself to Antonius; and, on his death, poisoned herself, rather than grace the triumph of Oc- 30. tavianus. Egypt was then reduced to the form of a Roman province.

The kingdoms of Europe and Asia, whose destinies we have traced in the preceding pages, fell, as we have seen, almost all into the spreading empire of Rome; a state which, as will soon appear, grew up from the smallest origin, and, gathering strength from every storm that assailed her, at length embraced nearly the whole civilised world beneath her shade. To her we now hasten, previously sketching the early history of her first transmarine rival,

Carthage.

At an early period of history a colony of Tyrians, said to have been conducted by Dido, sister to the king of Tyre, founded on the coast of Africa the city of Carthage. Possessed of the commercial enterprise and dexterity of their countrymen, they rapidly extended their trade and

B. C.

their dominions. Numerous cities on the coast of Africa were founded by them: they trafficked with the interior : their ships sailed to the south beyond the Canary isles; northwards they visited the shores of Gaul and Britain, and, perhaps, those of the Baltic: they wrought the silver mines of Spain: their colonies occupied the isles of the Mediterranean.

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The political constitution of Carthage claimed the admiration of Aristotle. Two magistrates, named Suffetes, or judges chosen annually from the most distinguished families, were at the head of the government: under them were five persons who managed the chief affairs. All these magistrates were unpaid. The senate was composed of 100 members: if they and the five agreed on any matter, it was put into execution; if they disagreed, it was brought before the assembly of the people: the decision of the last was conclusive. Morals were more

attended to in Carthage than in most Grecian cities, and there was a magistrate there corresponding with the Roman censor. The popular power was not so dangerous in Carthage as in Greece, the people being of a grave and solemn character, and not to be led astray by the arts of demagogues. Their manners were rugged, their religion dark and cruel.

Six wars were waged by the Carthaginians in Sicily. 413. The first was caused by the people of Egesta calling on them for aid against Dionysius of Syracuse. In this war fortune favoured the Punic arms. A second and a third war ensued between them and the prince of Syracuse, still to the advantage of Carthage. During a fourth Dionysius died, and his son made peace. The Carthaginian arms were, for the fifth time, directed against Syracuse, in support of Icetas, tyrant of Leontium. Timoleon, the Corinthian, commanded the Syracusan troops, and forced Carthage to restore the Grecian towns to freedom, to recognise the river Halycus as their boundary, and to engage not to meddle with the affairs of Sicily. Aga

*Shofetim is the Hebrew name of the Judges of Israel.

thocles was the occasion of the Carthaginians again engaging in hostilities with Syracuse; and the latter was so hard pressed as to be forced to call on Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, for assistance. Carthage was successful against Pyrrhus; but this war involved her in hostilities with Rome, and thereby caused her ruin.

CHAP. VI.

ROME TILL THE PUNIC WARS.

Rome under Kings.

WHILE empire after empire was flourishing and falling in Asia, while the various states of Greece were contending with each other, or occupied by internal changes, there was growing up, from the smallest beginnings, a nation destined to be the future mistress of all these states and empires.

Italy, the peninsula westward of Greece, was originally inhabited by tribes of an unknown race. The Pelasgians, that extensive people who settled in Greece, also established themselves in Italy. They inhabited the plains and the coasts, and were peaceful and agricultural: the mountain tribes gradually encroached upon them and conquered them. On the banks of the river Tiber, a portion of this people, named Siculans, was established: a tribe of the mountains, named Aborigines by the historians, invaded their country, expelled a part, and conquered and settled themselves among the remainder; and the united people were called Latins. A portion of them lived in villages, on some hills adjacent to the Tiber. Another mountain-race, called the Sabines, afterwards advanced towards the sea, and wrested from the inhabitants of the banks of the Tiber a part of their territory. These nations finally coalesced, and formed one 753. people; their joint city was named Rome, possibly its old Pelasgian appellation, and it was governed by

B. C.

kings, chosen alternately by one of the combined nations out of the other.

Such is the most probable account of the origin of Rome which the researches of modern times have been able to give.* A different and more romantic tale appears in the ancient historians; for the early history of Rome was not written till she had become a great and powerful state, and then enquirers could meet no narratives of the days long past, save what was contained in popular tradition and popular poetry, which recorded marvels of Rome's descent from wide-famed Troy, the landing of Æneas in Latium, the love of the god Mars for the vestal Rhea, her bearing twins by the god, their exposure in the Tiber, their being saved and suckled by a wolf, and fed by a woodpecker till found by the shepherd Faustulus, their finally restoring their grandfather to the throne of Alba Longa, the city founded by Ascanius, the son of Æneas, and then collecting their fellow-shepherds and an indiscriminate rabble, and founding a town named Rome, from Romulus, the elder of the twins, on the hills where they had been miraculously saved and educated.

The religion of Rome having, probably, had a similar origin with that of Greece, strongly resembled it; and the Grecian system was, in a great measure, afterwards adopted by the Romans. Religion was, however, in Rome, at all times, much more an affair of state than in Greece.

The first constitution of Rome, whatever her origin, was monarchical. Romulus the warrior, and Numa the legislator, who appear in history as her two first kings, it is possible, never existed. The first undoubted historic fact of this early period, is the migration of the Albans to Rome when their city was destroyed, the Roman writers say, by Tullus, the king of Rome; strong circumstances intimate, by the Latins, who afterwards possessed her territory. Ancus, the succeeding monarch, extended the Roman dominions to the sea, and built the

Niebuhr has been followed in this view of the early history of Rome.

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