death of Cæsar, Cassius went to Syria; and after defeating the fleet and pillaging the temples of the Rhodians, who thought themselves so certain of victory as to have prepared chains for the prisoners they calculated upon taking, he returned to Greece; and uniting his troops to those under Brutus, met Antony and Octavianus at Philippi. Here, when the left wing under his command was defeated by Antony, and thus neutralized the success that Brutus had obtained on the right, Cassius in a fit of despair either destroyed himself, or was destroyed by some friendly hand, on the anniversary of his birth-day. In the funeral oration pronounced over his body by Brutus, he was called the last of the Romans; for when he was asked by Antony, on the day after the murder of Cæsar, whether he had a dagger concealed in his bosom, he replied, "Yes; for you, if you attempt to make yourself king." The only specimens of his writings are to be found in a few of his letters to Cicero.-5. LUCIUS VARIUS, a poet of Parma, who is reproached by his friend Horace for the rapidity of his compositions in verse, had in early life attached himself to the party of Pompey, and subsequently sided with Antony; on whose defeat at Actium he retired to Athens, where he was put to death by the orders of Octavianus, towards the end of the year u.c. 724. A list of the works attributed to him is given by Weichert, in his volume De Lucii Varii et Cassii Parmensis Vita et Carminibus, Grimmæ, 1836, and who there shows, in page 299, that of the verses on Orpheus, which Bayle attributed to Achilles Statius, one Antonius Thylesius of Italy was the real author.-6. TITUS SEVERUS, an orator in the time of Augustus Cæsar, by whom he was banished to Crete for writing libels on persons of rank, both male and female, and died in A.D. 33, after an exile of twenty-five years, in the island of Seriphus, to which he had been removed by the order of Tiberius. According to Seneca, his auditors were so delighted with him, that their only fear was lest he should finish his speech too soon, which was so full of beauties that an inattentive listener was sure to lose some gem; and such was the readiness of his wit, that his opponents took care never to interrupt him; for his extempore sallies were more powerful than his studied thoughts. Even Quintilian, who speaks rather coldly of him, only because he had been praised by Seneca, confesses that had he been as grave and dignified as he was

witty and sarcastic, he would have ranked amongst the first of orators; a confession that only increases our regret that nothing of such a speaker should have been preserved except the opening of his speech against Nonius Asprenas.-7. CHEREAS, the captain of the Prætorian guards, and the destroyer of Caligula, in whose service he had been, but was unwilling to execute all his master's orders with the rigour the tyrant required; and as his humanity was considered a proof of his effeminacy, it exposed him to some bitter jests on the part of the emperor, that eventually cost the latter his life by a conspiracy, of which Chæreas was the chief; and though it was proposed to reward him with the highest honours for the good service he had done the state in destroying the monster, yet no sooner was Claudius saluted emperor by the Prætorian guards than he ordered Chæreas to be executed.

CASSIUS, (Andrew,) born at Schlesswig, was son of one of the secretaries of the reigning duke. He studied medicine at Leipsic, and obtained the degree of doctor at Leyden in 1632. On returning to Germany, he practised at Hamburg with considerable success, and was appointed physician to the duke of Holstein. He boasted that he possessed the secret of a kind of bezoard which was infallible against the plague. He left no writings, but the name of his son has been perpetuated by the discovery of the substance which forms the beautiful rose and violet colours on china, called the purple of Cassius. It is prepared by adding the hydrochlorate of the protoxide of tin, to a solution of the hydrochlorate of gold. This son obtained the degree of doctor at Gröningen. The year of his death is not known. He wrote two dissertations on medical subjects, but the following is the most remarkable of his productions: Cogitata de Auro et Admirandâ ejus Naturâ Generatione Affectionibus effectis atque ad Operationes Artis Habitudine Experimentis illustrata, Hamburg, 1685, 8vo.

CASTAGNO, (Andrea del,) was born in 1409, at the village of Castagno, in Tuscany, and being left an orphan at a very early age, he was taken under the care of his uncle. While employed at some humble occupation, he by chance saw an artist painting, and looking at his work with wonder and attention he attempted to imitate him. His productions surprised every one who saw them, and their fame having reached Florence,

Bernardetto de Medici sent for Andrea, and, struck with his extraordinary genius, placed him under the instruction of the best painters of that day in Florence. He was for some time the pupil of Masaccio, and soon rose to be a perfect master of his art. At first he worked in fresco, but learning the secret of painting in oil froin Domenico Veneziano, he abandoned distemper colour for the more attractive mode which his newly acquired secret afforded him. This, from its novelty and splendour, instantly excited admiration; and Castagno, envious that any other person but himself should be the possessor of a discovery so valuable, and jealous of the praise bestowed upon the productions of his friend, formed the horrid project of assassinating him. This foul and treacherous design he soon effected by stabbing Domenico at the corner of a street. He escaped detection, or even suspicion, and hastened to his house, and while calmly at work in his painting-room, his dying victim was brought before him, and shortly after expired in the arms of his assassin. Castagno continued to practise his art, but not with the same success as before, though he amassed a large fortune. At his death, which occurred in 1480, he was stung with remorse, and made confession of his atrocious guilt, and the reputation he had gained was more than counterbalanced by the universal execration in which his memory was held. One of his best paintings, the Execution of the Conspirators against the House of Medici, is in the hall of justice at Florence. In the church of S. Lucia de Magnuoli there are some excellent pictures by him; and in the monastery Degli Angeli, a Crucifixion painted in fresco.

CASTALDI, (Cornelius,) an Italian poet and lawyer, who acquired considerable reputation in the sixteenth century, by his poetical compositions in Latin and Italian, was born at Feltre, about 1480, of a noble family. He studied philosophy and the arts at Padua, where he received his doctor's degree in 1503. He afterwards studied law, and amidst the fatigues of his profession, found leisure to cultivate poetry. The town of Feltre employed him as their agent at Venice, where, as well as at Padua, he formed an intimacy with many eminent scholars and persons of rank. He died in 1537. He founded a college at Padua. His poetical works remained unpublished until 1757, when they were printed, under the editorship of Conti, in a small quarto volume,

Poesi volgari e Latine di Cornelio Castaldi, &c. with his life, by Thomas Joseph Farsetti. His Italian poems are written with ease, and abound in imagery; and in his Latin efforts he has imitated the ancients with success.

CASTALIO, or CASTELLIO, (Sebastian,) a learned Frenchman, born in 1515, in Dauphiny, according to some authors, but according to others in Savoy. Spon and Leti mention Chatillon as the place of his birth: of his early life we have little information. Calvin conceived such an esteem and friendship for him, during the stay he made at Strasburg, in 1540 and 1541, that he lodged him for some days at his house, and procured him a regent's place in the college of Geneva. After continuing in this office near three years, he was forced to quit it in 1544, on account of some peculiar opinions which he held concerning the Song of Solomon and the Descent into Hell. He retired to Basle, where he was made Greek professor. He died there in 1563, in extreme poverty. He incurred the displeasure of Calvin and Beza, from whom he differed concerning predestination and the punishment of heretics; and the latter is said to have declared that Castalio had translated the Bible into Latin at the instigation of the devil. He was tolerably well acquainted with Hebrew, but aiming at classical taste, he betrayed the greatest want of judgment in the two works for which he is now principally known-his translation of the Bible into Latin, and his Dialogues. The quaintness of his Latin style in the former, evinces a deplorable inattention to the simple majesty of the original. In the Song of Solomon he is particularly injudicious. This book he wished expunged from the canon; which was one of the causes of his differences with Calvin and Beza: when that could not be done, he contrived to debase the magnificence of the language and the subject by diminutives, which, though expressive of familiar endearment, are destitute of dignity, and therefore improper on solemn occasions. He published, in 1546, a translation of the Sibylline verses into Latin heroic verse, and of the books of Moses into Latin prose, with notes. This was followed, in 1547, by his Latin version of the Psalms of David, and of all the other metrical portions of Scripture. In 1548 he printed a Greek poem on the life of John the Baptist, and a paraphrase on the prophecy of Jonah, in Latin verse. He also translated into Latin several trea

tises of Ochinus, particularly the thirty dialogues. His notes on the Epistle to the Romans were condemned by the church of Basle, because they opposed the doctrine of predestination and efficacious grace. He began his Latin translation of the Bible at Geneva in 1542, and finished it at Basle in 1550. It was printed at Basle in 1551, and dedicated by the author to Edward VI. king of England. He published a second edition of it in 1554, and another in 1556. The edition of 1573 is most esteemed. The French version was dedicated to Henry II. of France, and printed at Basle, in 1555. CASTEL, (Lewis Bertrand,) a French mathematician and Jesuit, born at Montpellier, in 1688. His abilities early attracted the notice of Fontenelle and Tournemine, who invited him to Paris, where he arrived towards the end of 1720. The first work he published was his treatise of Universal Gravity, 1724, 2 vols, 12mo. This was attacked by the abbé Saint Pierre. Castel wrote an answer. His next work was, Abridged System of Mathematics, Paris, 1727, 4to; which was soon followed by an Universal System of Mathematics, 1728, 4to; a work applauded both in England and France. The Royal Society of London admitted him of their body. His Clavecin Oculaire, or Ocular Harpsichord, excited much curiosity and considerable expectation among opticians as well as musicians. His idea of producing the same pleasure to the eye by the melody and harmony of colours, as the ear received from the succession and combination of musical tones, was published in 1725. After being tried in all parts of Europe, particularly in London, about 1756, when the plan and pretended effects were published in an English pamphlet, its exhibition was soon neglected and forgotten, and has been scarcely heard of since. In 1743 he published his Vrai Système de Physique générale de Newton, 4to. He reverenced the English philosopher, though his doctrine appeared to him but little adapted to reveal the true system of the universe. "Newton and Descartes," said he, "are nearly on a par in regard to invention; but the latter had more facility and elevation; the other, with less facility, was more profound. Such is pretty nearly the character of the two nations: the French genius builds upwards, the English genius downwards. Each of them had the ambition to make a world, as Alexander had that of conquering it, and both had grand ideas of nature." The style

of Castel partook of the fire of his genius and the wanderings of his imagination. He died in 1757. The abbé de la Porte published, in 1763, 12mo, at Paris, under the imprint of Amsterdam, L'Esprit, les Saillies, et Singularités du Père Castel.

CASTELL, (Edmund,) a learned oriental scholar, born, in 1606, at Hatley, in Cambridgeshire. He became a memher in 1621 of Emmanuel college, Cambridge, where he continued many years. Afterwards he removed to St. John's college for the convenience of the library there, which was of great service to him in compiling his grand work, the Lexicon Heptaglotton, or Dictionary of Seven Tongues, which cost him the assiduous labour of eighteen years; but his unwearied diligence in this undertaking injured his health, and impaired his constitution. Besides this, the work was the entire ruin of his fortune; for he spent upon it upwards of twelve thousand pounds. In consequence of this, he was reduced to extreme distress; when, probably in consideration of his learned labours, he was, in 1666, made king's chaplain, and Arabic professor at Cambridge; and in 1668 he obtained a prebend of Canterbury. In the next year he published his Lexicon Heptaglotton; but the copies of the book lay almost entirely unsold upon his hands. He received, indeed, some additional preferments; but they were by no means sufficient to recompense him for his great losses. The small vicarage of Hatfield Peverell, in Essex, was bestowed upon him; and he was afterwards presented to the rectory of Wodeham Walter in the same county. His last preferment, which was towards the close of his life, was the rectory of Higham Gobion, in Bedfordshire. He assisted Dr. Walton in the celebrated edition of the Polyglott Bible. This is acknowledged by Walton, who, after complimenting Castell's erudition and modesty, mentions the diligence he employed upon the Samaritan, the Syriac, the Arabic, and the Ethiopic versions; his having given a Latin translation of the Canticles, under the last version; and his adding to all of them learned notes. He also translated several books of the New Testament, and the Syriac version of Job, where it differs from the Arabic. From a letter of his, which is still extant, written in 1674, it appears that the many discouragements he had met with had not extinguished his ardour for the promotion of oriental literature. The same letter shows, that,

in his application to the learned languages, he had forgotten the cultivation of his native tongue, and that even his orthography did not keep pace with the improvements of the time. He died in 1685. All his oriental manuscripts were bequeathed by him to the university of Cambridge, on condition that his name should be written on every copy in the collection. It is supposed that about five hundred of his Lexicons were unsold at the time of his death. These were placed by Mrs. Crisp, his niece and executrix, in a room of one of her tenants' houses at Martin, in Surrey, where for many years they lay at the mercy of the rats; and when they came into the possession of this lady's executors, scarcely one complete volume could be formed out of the remainder, and the whole sold for only seven pounds.

CASTELLANUS. See CHATEL. CASTELLI, (Benedetto,) an Italian mathematician, and one of the most renowned of the disciples of Galileo, was born at Brescia, in 1577. In 1595 he entered into a monastery of the order of St. Benedict, in his native city, but afterwards studied at Padua and at Florence, where he assisted Galileo in his astronomical observations, and afterwards maintained a regular correspondence with him. From 1615 to 1625, he occupied the mathematical chair at Pisa. In 1625 he was invited to Rome by pope Urban VIII. and was made mathematical professor in the college Della Sapienza. The subject of his particular attention, and in the investigation of which he chiefly excelled, was the motion of water, on which subject as connected with the health of the cities of Venice, &c. he was frequently consulted, and suggested many important improve ments. His practical skill in hydraulics, displayed in carrying off the stagnant waters of the Arno, and in many other public works, seems to have exceeded his theoretical science, in which he fell into an error respecting the velocity of issuing fluids; for he held that that velocity is proportional to the height of the reservoir, instead of the square root of the height. In 1628 he published, on the mensuration of running waters, Della Misura dell' Acque Correnti, Rome, 4to, and Dimostrazioni Geometriche della Misura dell' Acque Correnti, ib. 4to. Montucla calls him "The creator of a new part of Hydraulics." His defence of Galileo, Riposta alle Opposizioni del Sig. Ludovico delle Colombe, &c. was published at Florence, 1615, 4to. He

died in 1644. Duke Leopold ordered his bust to be placed beside that of Galileo. In the library of S. Giorgio Maggiore, at Venice, are deposited several important works of Castelli in MS.

CASTELLI, (Bernardo,) an eminent painter of history and portrait, born at Genoa, in 1557. He studied under Andrea Semini and Luca Cambiaso; and afterwards visited Rome. He soon became a mannerist, and frequently adopted the colour and despatch of Vasari and Zucchari. The most distinguished poets of his time, whose portraits he painted, and who celebrated him in their verses, particularly Marino and Tasso, were his intimate friends; and he made designs for the Jerusalem of the latter. The subject of his altar piece for St. Peter's at Rome, was the Call of St. Peter to the Apostleship; which was afterwards removed to make room for one executed by Lanfranco. As an engraver, Strutt says, his style somewhat resembled that of Cornelius Bus. Among other works in this department is the set of prints for Tasso's Jerusalem. He died in 1629.

CASTELLI, (Valerio,) a painter, son of the preceding, was born at Genoa, in 1625. He was a pupil of Domenico Fiasella, but instead of following the style of this master, he took for his models the works of Procaccini and Correggio, and profiting by these examples, he acquired a manner at once graceful and pure, and which he might justly claim as entirely his own. In his favourite subjects, battle-pieces, he displays great spirit of composition and freedom of hand, and his horses are admirably drawn. His pictures in this style combined the taste of Paolo Veronese with the fire of Tintoretto, and, as they are not frequently met with, they are very highly valued. At Genoa, Castelli painted the cupola of the church of the Annunciation, and in the palace of the grand duke at Florence is his splendid picture of the Rape of the Sabines. It is said there are more easel pictures by this master in the private galleries of England than in any other part of Europe. He died in 1659.

CASTELLI, (Giovanni Battista,) a celebrated painter, born at Bergamo, in 1500, and called Il Bergamasco, to distinguish him from an artist of the same name, a pupil of Luca Cambiaso, and celebrated as a miniature painter. When very young, he received instruction from Aurelio Busso, a painter of Crema, who had studied under Polidoro da Caravaggio. He was so fortunate as to attract the

notice of one of the noble house of the Pallavicini, by whom he was enabled to visit Rome. His patron maintained him for several years in that city, and had the gratification to find that Castelli, on his return to Genoa, had not only acquired a perfect knowledge of the art of painting, but equally excelled as an architect and sculptor. His splendid picture of the Martyrdom of St. Sebastian is in the monastery dedicated to that saint. Having returned to Genoa, he was employed, in conjunction with Luca Cambiaso, to paint in the Nunziata di Portoria. In this noble production, great as is the merit of the portion executed by Luca, it is left at an immeasurable distance by the exquisite beauty of composition, colouring, and expression, in the painting of his associate. The figure of Our Saviour, as Judge of the World, surrounded by an angelic circle, is depicted with a lustre perfectly dazzling. In the saloon of the Lanzi palace at Gorlago, Castelli painted several works, illustrating some of the most interesting passages of the Iliad, in which he equals Giulio Romano in grandeur of style. On the invitation of Charles V. he went to Spain, and was employed by him in the palace of Pardo. Castelli died at Madrid in 1570; some say in 1580.

CASTELLI, (Bartholomew,) a celebrated Italian physician and botanist, born at Messina, towards the end of the sixteenth century. He studied theology, philosophy, and medicine, and took a doctor's degree in each of these branches of study. He practised at, and was professor of, medicine in the Academy of Messina. He was a very learned man, and the first to project and execute a lexicon, or dictionary, of the terms employed in medicine; a work that has maintained its reputation to the present time. It was first published as Lexicon Medicum Græco Latinum, at Venice, in 1607, 8vo; and in 1628 it was put forth with additions, by Emmanuel Stupano, of Basle. Adrian Ravenstein made further additions in his edition of Rotterdam, in 1651, of which there were several impressions, but the most valuable is that published by Pancrace Bruno, at Padua, 1699, 4to, under the title of Amalthæum Castellanum Brunonianum, sive Lexicon Medicum primùm à Bart. Castello Messanensi inchoatum, ab aliis etiam continuatum, tandem ad vera, novaque Artis Medica Principia accommodatum, &c. This has gone through many editions.

CASTELLO, (Gabriel Lancelot,) an eminent antiquary, born at Palermo, in

1727. Accident diverted him from the study of botany and chemistry, to which he was devoting himself in early life, and thenceforth he turned his attention to antiquities. Not far from Motta, where he lived, stood the ancient Halesa, or Alesa (Tosa,) a colony of Nicosia, celebrated by the Greek and Latin poets, which was swallowed up by an earthquake in the year 828. One day a ploughman dug up a quantity of coins, which he brought to Castello, who, conceiving a strong desire to decipher them, forthwith betook himself to the study of antiquities; and he engaged in this pursuit with such success, that within three years he was able to draw up a very learned paper on the subject of a statue which had been dug up, which he pub lished under the title of Dissertazione sopra una Statua di Marmo trovata nelle Campagne di Alesa, Palermo, 1749, 8vo, with letters on some antiquities of Solanto near Palermo; and before he had reached his twenty-sixth year he published his History and Antiquities of Alesa, which procured him the reputation of an able antiquary. He formed a noble collection of the remains of antiquity in Sicily, and was an honorary member of the Royal Society, and of the Paris Academy. He died in 1794. He published, among other works, Siciliæ Populorum et Urbium, Regum quoque et Tyrannorum veteres Nummi Saracenorum Epocham antecedentes, Palermo, 1781, fol. To this he added two supplements in 1789 and 1791.

CASTELNAU, (Henrietta Julia de,) wife of count de Murat, wrote in an elegant and pleasing style Les Lutrins de Kernofi, 12mo. Des Contes de Fées, 2 vols, 12mo. Le Voyage de Campagne, 2 vols, 12mo. She died in 1716, aged 45.

CASTELNAU, (Michel de,) a French nobleman, distinguished as a soldier and diplomatist. He was frequently employed by Charles IX. and Henry III. of France in negotiations of great importance. He was five times ambassador in England, where on his first mission he resided above ten years. He greatly befriended Mary queen of Scots, endeavoured to effect a reconciliation between her and Darnley, and earnestly interceded in her behalf with Elizabeth. The Mémoires of his Negotiations were published by Le Laboreur in 1669, 2 vols, folio, and reprinted at Brussels in 1731, 3 vols, fol. He died in 1592. His Mémoires were translated into English by his daughter Catharine, Lond. 1724, fol.

CASTELVETRO, (Ludovico,) an emi