combined by every means to lower him in public estimation, condemning his models for their want of grace, and endeavouring to cast ridicule on all his works for their unredeemed vulgarity. But all this did not divert him from his strict adherence to nature; and what was before so offensive, now became the popular style, and the whole body of artists imitated his example. Of an impetuous and vindictive spirit, Caravaggio was perpetually embroiled in quarrels with his associates. He went to Malta to obtain the honour of knighthood, purposely to enable him to fight with Giosepino, who held that dignity. Shortly after this he quarrelled with a person of rank at Rome, and having stabbed him, he was compelled to fly to Malta for safety. Here the grand master afforded him protection, and on his painting an altarpiece for the church of St. John, he received a chain of gold, and was allowed two slaves as his attendants. But his fiery disposition would not suffer him to remain quiet; he was involved in some quarrel with one of the knights, for which he was condemned to suffer imprisonment. His restless and daring spirit could ill brook this restraint, and he found means to effect his escape, and fled to Sicily: here he was pursued and dreadfully wounded by an armed party. From Sicily he went to Naples, where he painted a picture of John the Baptist, which he sent to the grand master, and it had the effect of softening his resentment; at the same time, through the interest of cardinal Gonzaga, he succeeded in obtaining a pardon from the pope. Feeling now secure, he ventured to return to Rome; but again he was attacked and severely wounded. Nothing daunted, he embarked in a felucca, and on landing he was seized by mistake for another person, and sent to prison. On regaining his liberty, he sought the felucca, but in vain; it had sailed, carrying away every article of property of which he had been master. Suffering from his recent wounds, and frustrated in all his efforts to regain his lost property, he endeavoured to reach some place where he might obtain assistance in his wretched condition; but the heat to which he was exposed completely exhausted him: as his anxiety increased his courage forsook him, a violent fever seized him, and he had scarcely reached Porto Ercole when he expired, in his fortieth year, in 1609. Whatever may have been the faults of Caravaggio as a painter, he must ever rank high among the masters of his art. His great excellence consisted in truth of colour; and so strict was he in the imitation of such objects as were placed before him, that he was universally called the Naturalist. His tints may be few, but they are true to nature; his colouring is vigorous, yet pure; and he has never been surpassed in the management of chiar-oscuro. His colouring so much excited the admiration of Annibal Caracci, that he said Caravaggio did not paint, but grind flesh. The gloom which pervades his pictures frequently gives to them an air of mystery and sublimity; and we occasionally observe in them a wildness of passion in consonance with the spirit of the painter. To give his works that dimness and force, he caused all the walls of his paintingroom to be blackened, that the shades of objects might have no reflection, and the light only entered from a small window. Caravaggio was careless in his person, and rude and uncouth in his manners; his impetuous temper left him without a friend, and he was regardless of all the rules which regulate common civility or decorum. At Rome may be found by this master The Crucifixion of St. Peter, in the church of S. Maria del Popolo; and in the Borghese Gallery a Holy Family-a gigantic work; at Naples, the Scourging of Christ, a fine picture, in the church of S. Domenicho Maggiore; and Peter denying Christ, in the church of St. Martin. In the Berlin Gallery there is an admirable picture of his, Earthly Love. But his best production is the Entombing of Christ, formerly in the Chiesa Nuova at Rome, and now in the Louvre. Caravaggio had several scholars and followers, and among those who imitated him, we do not find a bad colourist. (Lanzi. Baldinacci. Kugler.) CARAVAGGIO, (Polidoro Caldara da) an eminent painter, was born in 1495, and, like the subject of the preceding article, took his name from the place of his birth, the village of Caravaggio in the Milanese. Of humble parentage, his early years were passed in obscurity and want, necessity compelling him to leave his home to seek for the common means of support. Chance led him to Rome, where he gladly accepted employment as a porter to carry mortar for the artists who were then engaged, under the orders of Leo X., in decorating with fresco paintings the walls of the Vatican. While at this humble occupation his attention was drawn to the works of Maturino and Giovanni da Udina, who were then executing the designs of Raphael. Struck with the extraordinary facility with which they worked, he was stimulated to try his own powers, and, inspired by natural genius, his first attempts were of sufficient excellence to attract the notice of Raphael, whose encouragement led him to fresh exertion. The progress he made was now so rapid, that he became the pupil of this great master, and applied himself to the study of ancient statues and bassi relievi. The result was that from imitation he rose to a style at once original, masterly, and pure; correctness of outline and a natural grace marking every work that came from his hands. The designs he made from the antique were executed merely in chiar-oscuro, which led him to neglect the importance of colouring; but the style, which was born and perished with him, carried with it an air of such originality, and there was in all his productions an excellence so matchless, that the illustrious Raphael himself fixed on him to paint the friezes connected with his own works in the apartments of the Vatican; a task he performed in such a manner as to call forth the unbounded admiration of his master. Caldara paid strict attention to correctness of costume. In the simplicity and ease of the cast of his drapery, in the grace of his attitudes and the elegance of his forms, we are brought back to that purity of style which distinguishes the brightest days of Athenian art. Though his pictures want variety from his neglect of colouring, yet the wonderful effect of chiar-oscuro, in the management of his masses of light and shade, and the grandeur of his composition, impart to all his productions a certain dignity that more experienced colourists have sought in vain to express. By exposure to the weather and by the ravages of time, the valuable frescos of Caldara have been nearly destroyed, and the engravings of Alberti, Goltius, and Galestruzzi, afford us now the only means we have of forming a judgment of their beauty and their excellence. In 1527, when Rome was attacked and taken by the Spaniards, Caldara was at the very height of his fame, but he was obliged for safety to fly to Naples: here he found refuge, and, through the kindness of Andrea da Salerno, he obtained employment. From Naples he went to Sicily, and at Messina he painted the triumphal arches erected in that city, to celebrate the return of Charles V. from Africa. On the restoration of peace he was desirous to return to Rome; and on leaving Sicily he had a considerable sum of money in his possession; this was unfortunately known to his servant, who, tempted to possess the treasure, murdered his master. His death took place in 1543. Among the best works of Caldara, will be found his friezes and other ornaments in the Vatican; in the court of the Palazzo Buffalo at Rome, his History of Niobe; in S. Silvestro a Monte Cavallo, his painting representing two passages in the life of Mary Magdalene, in which he has introduced a landscape of great beauty; and in the great church at Messina is his celebrated picture of Christ bearing his Cross, which Vasari assures us cannot be prized too highly. CARBAJAL, or CARVAJAL, (Luis de) a Spanish painter, born at Toledo, in 1534, and was a pupil of Don Juan de Villoldo. He was one of the many eminent painters employed by Philip II. in the Escurial, where he had a principal part of the cloisters assigned to him for the exercise of his pencil, and where he has represented some of the incidents in the life of the Virgin. He also painted the Nativity for the grand altar of the Infermeria. Several of his pictures are in the churches of Toledo and Madrid. He died in the latter city, in 1591. CARBEN, (Victor de,) a Jewish rabbi, a native of Germany, born in 1423. His parents were in narrow circumstances, but, such was his love of study, that, in spite of the disadvantages of his birth, he acquired so profound a knowledge of Oriental literature as to be chosen as their rabbi by the Jews of Cologne. His reputation led the archbishop of that city to attempt his conversion, and he succeeded. At the age of fifty-nine Carben read his recantation, abandoned his wife and children, was baptized, took orders, and became a zealous opponent of Judaism. He died, in 1515, at the advanced age of ninetytwo. Of his numerous works the most remarkable are, his Propugnaculum Fidei Christianæ, and his Judæorum Errores et Mores, Cologne, 1509, 4to. CARBO, (Louis,) a professor of divinity at Perugia, who lived towards the close of the sixteenth century, and wrote several works of Rhetoric, Philosophy, and Theology. He also published at Venice, 1579, an Introduction to Logic, 8vo. CARBON. See FLINS. CARBONE, (Giovanni, Bernardo) a painter, born at Albaro, near Genoa, in 1614. He studied under Giovanni Andrea de Ferrari. His earlier subjects were historical and allegorical; but he afterwards painted portraits, after the manner of Vandyck, of whom he was a most successful imitator. He visited Venice for the purpose of improving his taste and enriching his imagination, and on his return was employed at Genoa to paint a fresco at Santa Maria del Zerbino, which had been left in an imperfect state by Valerio Castello. His pictures are some of them of colossal magnitude, while others, though painted in oil, are exceedingly diminutive. His best paintings are at Celle and Lerici. He died in 1683. CARBONELLI, (Steffano,) a celebrated violinist, and pupil of Corelli, came to England from Rome about the year 1720. He was received into the family of the duke of Rutland, a great patron of music. During his residence with this nobleman, he published and dedicated to him twelve solos for a violin and bass, of his composition, which he frequently played in public with great applause. About the year 1725, he quitted the Opera-house and went to Drury-lane theatre, where he led the band, and frequently played select pieces between the acts. After continuing a few years at Drury-lane, Carbonelli quitted his station there and attached himself to Handel, at the time when he began to perform oratorios. For a series of years he played at the rehearsal and performance at St. Paul's, for the benefit of the Sons of the Clergy. At his first coming into England, he professed himself to be of the Roman Catholic persuasion; but afterwards he became a Protestant. In the latter part of his life, he in some measure declined the profession of music, and betook himself to that of a merchant, and an importer of wines from France and Germany. By the interest of a powerful friend, he obtained the place of one of the purveyors of wine to the king, and died in that employment in the year 1772. CARBONI, (Francesco,) a painter, born at Bologna. He was a pupil of Alessandro Tiarini, and became an emulous and successful imitator of Guido. His principal pictures are in his native city, where, in the church of S. Martini Maggiore, is a Crucifixion; in that of S. Paolo, an Entombing of Christ; and in that of the Servites, the Death of John the Baptist. The dates of his birth and death are not known. CARBURI, (Marin,) a native of Cephalonia, where he was born about the beginning of the eighteenth century. He is celebrated for his mechanical genius, of which he gave a memorable proof in the removal, from the vicinity of Cronstadt to Petersburg, of the enormous rock of granite which supports the bronze equestrian statue of Peter the Great in that capital. Catharine II. by whose orders the statue had been made, offered seven thousand roubles to the person who would transport the rock; and Carburi, who assumed the name of Lascary, undertook the arduous task, and accomplished it by means at once simple and ingenious. This great mechanical feat was performed in the winter of 1769. An account of the transaction is given in a work, published at Paris in 1777, entitled, Monument élevé à la Gloire de Pierrele-Grand, &c. par le Comte Marin Carburi, folio. Carburi was assassinated in 1782, in his native island, whither he had obtained permission from the Venetian republic to return, and where he was endeavouring to introduce the cultivation of the indigo plant and sugar cane. He was CARCANO, (Archelaus,) an Italian physician, born at Milan in 1556, celebrated as a poet and an orator. a disciple of the celebrated Alluzio, and filled a chair at the university of Pavia, where he died prematurely at the age of thirty-two, July 22, 1588. He is the author of De Peste Opusculum, Mediol. 1577, 4to. In Aphorismos Hippocratis Lucubrationes, Patav. 1581,8vo. Orationes duæ Ticini habitæ, ib. 1682, 4to. CARCANO, (John Baptist,) surnamed Leone, a celebrated Italian physician, born at Milan, and was a distinguished pupil of Fallopius, whose taste for, and knowledge of anatomy, he seems to have inherited. The death of Fallopius prevented him from being appointed to teach at Venice, but, in 1573, he was elected to a chair in the university of Pavia, which he filled for twenty-five years, and was then succeeded by his son Charles. He corrected many of the errors of Vesalius, Aranzi, and Fallopius. His anatomical descriptions are exact, and his account of the foetal heart is excellent for his day. His style is in general, however, diffuse and obscure. CARCAVI, (Peter de,) an eminent French mathematician and bibliographist, born at Lyons, in the beginning of the seventeenth century. He was at first counsellor to the parliament of Toulouse, where he made the acquaintance of the celebrated mathematician Peter Fermat, who, at his death, left him his valuable MSS. He afterwards removed to Paris, and became intimate with Pascal and Descartes; but soon quarrelled with the latter, on account of his attachment to Roberval and his party. In 1645 he took part in the dispute which arose respecting the quadrature of the circle, the impossibility of which he affected to demonstrate. He now devoted himself to bibliography, in which he attained considerable skill. Colbert made him keeper of his library; and while holding that office he occupied himself for five years in arranging and superintending the transcription of the voluminous Memoirs of cardinal Mazarin. In recompense of his services, the minister caused him to be appointed curator of the royal library, which, during Carcavi's management of it, was transferred from the Rue de la Harpe to the Rue Vivienne. He died, soon after his illustrious patron, in 1684. CARDAN, (Jerome,) a celebrated physician, mathematician, and philosopher, one of the most remarkable men of the sixteenth century, the son of Facio Cardan, a physician and jurisconsult of Milan, was born at Pavia, September 23, 1501. He is conjectured to have been illegitimate; an opinion somewhat countenanced by his own statement, that his mother several times essayed to procure abortion of him during her pregnancy. He was born apparently dead, but restored upon being immersed in a bath of hot wine. When four years of age he was brought to Milan, where his parents resided. His education was rigorously attended to, and coercion, often of a violent nature, was cruelly resorted to. Having arrived at an age to determine on the future course of his life, he first embraced the monastic order, and entered into the Franciscans, which, however, not proving agreeable to his taste, he, at the age of nineteen years, went to the university of Pavia, whence, at the expiration of one year, he withdrew to Padua. Here he studied philosophy and medicine with ardour; and his abilities attracting the attention of his teachers, he was frequently called upon, in the absence of Father Romolo, to deliver lectures on Euclid, and to assist Pandolpho, a physician, in his discourses on dialectics. In 1524 he was received a bachelor in letters at Venice, and made rector of the gymnasium of Padua, and he took the degree of M.D. in the following year. By the advice of Francis Buonafede he then established himself at Sacco, where he He practised medicine for six years. married the daughter of a Venetian adventurer, retired to Gallarato, and for nearly two years lived in great privacy, from which, however, he was withdrawn by the archbishop Archinto, and was appointed to teach mathematics, and to practise medicine, at Milan. Pope Paul III. and others made offers to him, which he declined. He was admitted into the college of Milan in 1539, and in 1540 he accepted a chair of medicine at Pavia, which he filled until 1545, when he returned to Milan. In the ensuing year Vesalius, by command of the king of Denmark, offered to him an appointment at Copenhagen, with a salary of 800 crowns, which, however, he refused. In 1552, John Hamilton, archbishop of St. Andrew's, and primate of Scotland, invited him for medical assistance. In this Cardan succeeded, and was rewarded magnificently, by a present of 1800 crowns. In his book, De Genituris, there is a calculation of the archbishop's nativity, from which he pretends both to have predicted his disease, and to have effected his cure. Robertson, the historian, says, that it is probable the archbishop considered him as a powerful magician when he applied to him for relief; but that it was his knowledge as a philosopher which enabled him to cure his disease. Having effected the cure of the archbishop, Cardan returned to Milan, and remained there until 1559, withstanding all entreaties from Henry II. of France, Ferdinand prince of Mantua, and the queen of Scotland, all of whom endeavoured to induce him to establish himself in their respective dominions. He now again accepted a chair at Pavia, and continued in it until 1562. travelled into Germany, France, and England, where he was introduced to Edward VI. on whom he has passed a high encomium. He then went to Bologna, and there taught until 1570. In this year he was imprisoned for debts during several months, and as soon as he regained his liberty he went to Rome, was admitted into the College of Physicians, and received a pension from pope Gregory XIII. His practice was both extensive and lucrative, and he amassed a large fortune. He died towards the close of the year 1576, writing memoirs of his own life in the month of October of that year. It has been said that he had predicted the date of his death, and that to prevent the non-fulfilment of his prophecy he starved himself; but this He statement is undeserving of credit. His character was singular, and consisted of a strange mixture of dissimilar dispositions. His own account of his life, in the book, De Propria Vita, is altogether a most remarkable autobiography. To it he affixed a collection of testimonies relating to his character as given by his contemporaries. He was looked upon as the first of astrologers, and he regarded astrology as the first of all the sciences. He has been accused of impiety and atheism; but from his writings he does not appear to have been deserving of these charges, though his religious principles are not well developed in any of his publications. Archbishop Parker has defended him with great ability in his work, De Deo, against the charge of atheism and infidelity. The writings of Cardan are so numerous and so voluminous that the hurry necessary upon their composition has led both Leibnitz and Naudé to suspect him of madness. From his father he had become deeply tinctured with the chimeras of astrology, and he seems to have entertained the opinion of the possibility of maintaining intercourse with demons. Scaliger was one of his bitterest enemies, yet he confesses that at times Cardan wrote as one inspired, and at others as an idiot. Cardan wrote on philosophy, morals, dialectics, physics, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, astrology, medicine, natural history, music, anatomy, history, grammar, and eloquence. From an epitaph composed by him for himself it will be seen that he held a high opinion of his writings: "Non me terra teget, cœlo sed raptus in alto The style of his works corresponds completely with his character, and they are full of imagination and wild conceits. Leibnitz says of him that he was a great man, notwithstanding all his faults, and that without them he would have been incomparable. He was, however, a good observer, and he has given several relations of natural events with great precision. He mentions a remarkable fall of no less than 1,200 aerolites in a field near Adda, one of which weighed 120, and another 60 pounds. His mathematical works possess the greatest merit, and he is the inventor of one of the most important rules in algebra, which goes by his name. Many of his writings have been collected together and published by Charles Spohn, as Opera omnia, Lugd. 1663, 10 vols, folio CARDENAL, (Peter,) born about the year 1205, according to some at Argense, near Beaucaire, according to others, at Puy-en-Velay, and embraced the profession of a poet, and held a conspicuous rank among those of Provence, so well known under the name of troubadours. He seems to have passed some time at the court of Charles II. king of Naples and Sicily, after which he resided for some time at Tarascon, where, Nostradamus says, he kept a school; but this must have been after the death of king Charles; for his son, the celebrated Robert, who succeeded him on the throne of Naples and Sicily, and was besides count of Provence, exempted the town of Tarascon, for ten years, from every species of tax, on condition "that they should maintain, at the public expense, Peter Cardenal, a good troubadour." How long he continued to live in that town is uncertain; but it is highly probable that at the expiration of the ten years he went to Naples, where he died about the year 1302. He wrote many poems of different sorts, but all more or less partaking of the spirit of the age, which has been very properly designated the metaphysic of sentiment. CARDI, (Ludovico,) called also CIVOLI, and CIGOLI, from the castle of Cigoli, in Tuscany, where he was born, in 1559. This eminent painter was at first a pupil of Alessandro Allori, at Florence, but was afterwards instructed by Santo di Tito, then the most celebrated painter in that city. Here Cardi studied closely the antique statues, together with the works of Michael Angelo, Andrea del Sarto, and Pontormo, whose style he admired more than that of either of his masters. He also applied himself to the study of perspective and architecture in the school of Bernardo Buontalenti. He traversed the whole of Lombardy for the purpose of forming his judgment and refining his taste, and on his return to Florence he was received into the academy; his picture of reception was Cain slaying Abel. He was next employed in painting, for the palazzo Pitti, a Venus and Satyr, and the Sacrifice of Isaac, with which the grand duke of Tuscany was so well pleased, that he honoured him with a chain of gold, and sent him to Rome, were he was engaged to paint a picture for St. Peter's; on which occasion he executed a representation of St. Peter healing the lame man at the gate of the Temple; an admirable picture, which has |