left untouched. The early Reformers were wiser than many of their descendants. Had subsequent generations struck the line between extraneous corruptions and great and lasting truths, the cause of Reformed religion would not have suffered such serious injury at the hands of its defenders.

55. The causes of the great movement, called the Reformation, have been treated elsewhere. It shortly assumed the character of a plain denial of papal supremacy. A formal profession of the doctrines of the Protestants appeared for the first time in the Confession of Augsburg, the necessity of some such standard being early admitted.

The Loci Theologici of Melancthon (1521) are the first dogmatic statement of the doctrines of the Lutheran Church; but by far the most important document of the Lutheran Church is the Form of Concord (1580). To its failure in effecting the objects with which it was framed, may be traced many of the bitter and disgraceful disputes of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It is true that this document lays down with clearness and precision the fundamental doctrines of the Lutheran Church; but its result was the entire frustration of any permanent union. A revival of Scholasticism took place, with all the obstinacy, formalism, and disputatious spirit, but without the speculative depth of the former. The symbolical books of the Lutheran Church wear the characteristics of two periods-the first, simply and deeply religious; the second, more versed in polemical and dogmatical Theology. The voice of each may be found embodied respectively in the Confession of Augsburg, and the Form of Concord. The same remark may be extended to the Reformed Church. A wide difference obtains in tone between the well-known Heidelberg Catechism and the decisions of the Synod of Dort (1619). The earlier formularies arose out of the mighty and unavoidable strife which was being waged against certain great corruptions of Christianity; the later are the offspring of scholastic disputes respecting particular points of Theology.

56. Before proceeding farther from the life-times of the principal Reformers, it may be advisable to state briefly the chief differences between them, respecting which a singular perplexity has become general. Luther and Calvin agreed in the main on most fundamental points; such as the Trinity, original sin, the imperfection of good works, and justification by faith alone. Both attribute conversion (as did Augustine) to the exclusive work of the Holy Spirit; thus leaving conversion and rejection in the absolute disposal of God. But, in this point, the effects of the characteristic differences between Luther and Calvin may be traced. The views of the latter respecting the unity and omnipresence of God were strict even to logical consequence: his statements, so to speak, were tinged with a Judaical hue. Hence the difference, in this particular, between the Theology of the followers of Calvin and the Lutherans. Among the latter the subject of free-will was treated with more freedom, and a provisional election only held to exist.

The two principal heads of the doctrinal system of the Reformed (or Calvinistic) branch of the Protestant body are Justification and the

Eucharist. With regard to the first, Calvin agreed with Luther respecting the imputed merits of Christ; but they differed respecting the indefectibility of grace. This, Calvin consistently maintained, on the ground of the connexion which he asserted to exist between predestination and justification, and the perpetual guardianship of God over the elect.

The sentiments of these great men respecting the initiatory sacrament of Christian life (as in other matters) were consistently different: Luther held in the main the Catholic view: the key to the lower view (as held by Calvin) is to be found in his doctrine of predestination. Their respective theories with regard to the Eucharist have been stated elsewhere. As is well known, Melancthon offended the Lutheran party by his Calvinistic leanings on this head; as, on the other hand, Luther had drawn upon himself the censures of the Swiss Reformer respecting the scope allowed by him to free-will.

The other Helvetic leader, Ulrich Zwingli, differed widely from both Luther and Calvin in his views respecting the condition and powers of man. To these he assigned a dignity and vigour exceeding the declarations of Scripture. His notions respecting the Trinity and the Person of Christ are free from this charge; but his doctrine respecting God has altogether an abstract and metaphysical tone, and has been charged with a tendency to Pantheism. But the main difference between the Zwinglian and other schools is notoriously to be found in his theory of the Sacraments, which (as first stated by him) deprived them of their concomitant grace.

57. Calvin's Institutes of the Christian Religion (1535) may be considered as the earliest dogmatical work in the Reformed branch of the great Protestant body which has acquired a permanent reputation. His commentary on the Acts is highly esteemed; but his great merits are most eminently displayed when writing on the Epistles of St. Paul. "Never, perhaps," (so writes the latest biographer of Calvin) "was there a commentator who has set forth so clearly the truths of the Christian scheme, as contemplated in a lively spirit of Christian conviction and experience."

58. We have before adverted to a Pseudo-Scholasticism as distracting the Lutheran community. This manifested itself contemporaneously in the Reformed, in the thorny and subtle writings of Voet (1634). On the other hand, Cocceius (1669) attempted to establish a system more in unison with Scripture, in his well-known federal Theology. The leading feature of his scheme is a double compact between God and man the first, that of nature and works; the second, that of grace and faith. In addition to this new form of theological opposition, the hostile influence of the Cartesian philosophy was now turned upon the revival of Scholasticism. Much evil grew up in connexion with this dialectical tendency, which was mitigated at a subsequent period by the historical labours of Calixtus (1701), and the practical earnestness of Spener.

To the fundamental principle laid down in the Tridentine Canons,

by which a co-ordinate authority with Scripture has been attributed to tradition, the Form of Concord had opposed another equally positivethe well-known one, that the Bible is the exclusive rule of Protestants. During the seventeenth century, Calixtus, a professor of Helmstadt, came to the rescue of ecclesiastical antiquity, which he deemed to be unduly neglected by his Lutheran brethren. The great principle of Calixtus was, that the foundations of Christian Theology were to be found in the writings of the first five centuries; the unanimous consent of which, he proceeded to argue, was to be considered as a secondary principle of authority, inferior only to that contained in Scripture. But Calixtus was deceived, when, following the fashion of the time, he attempted to effect a fusion of religious parties in accordance with this primitive standard.

The movements connected with Pietism commenced in the Lutheran Church towards the close of the seventeenth century-a period when the stubborn dogmatism of the orthodox party drove more spirituallyminded individuals into an opposite, and, in some instances, an extreme course. Like the track of our own early Methodists, that of Spener found its best apology in the dead, cold orthodoxy of the time.

59. Philosophy, which should be the handmaid of religion, in Germany was arrayed against her. The system of Leibnitz, it is true, made little way until popularised by Wolf. A countervailing force was thus obtained, by which the vague, ascetic tone of Pietism was in some degree neutralised, but to the great detriment, at the same time, of sound religious feeling. The general result of the predominance of the Wolfian philosophy was a solemn shallowness, an undue deference to abstract notions, and an affectation of dialectical skill. In the Kantian system, historical proof found no place in religion; the truths of the latter were regarded simply as a means for the religious instruction of the people. The dogmas of the Church and the statements of Scripture were alike subjected to a system of interpretation, the object of which was to unfold the moral lesson contained in the historical sense, or, where deficient, to supply it. This view of the Kantian philosophy, as influencing religion, is given on the authority of Gieseler. What he subjoins is more obviously true-"that the modified Rationalism of this school speedily opened the way for the prevalence of direct historical Rationalism." According to this latter, God having revealed Himself to man in a manner intelligible to human capacity, it followed that many human and extraneous additions had been made to the original divine truth. To discriminate between these, and to reduce the real truths of Revelation to their primary simplicity, became accordingly the office of reason.

60. Thus attacked by the opposite evils of fanaticism and coldness, Lutheran Theology needed an infusion of a new and healthy spirit. It had become a matter of paramount importance to christianise the philosophical influences which could now no longer be excluded from Theology. Unhappily, the good of the former scholasticism, its systematised learning and acuteness, had been thrown away in the first

fervour of the Reformation. Among the most learned writers were to be found men most bitterly and injudiciously anti-ecclesiastical in spirit. All traces of higher mysticism (as life in God has been sometimes called) disappeared from speculative Theology. Contemporaneously with these evil signs, there arose a frigid, measured morality, and an indiscriminate, unfounded scepticism.

61. A principal instrument in dispelling this gloomy darkness, which clogged for so long a period the Christianity of Germany, was Schleiermacher (d. 1834). His name marks the point at which the Protestant Theology of Germany passes from a negative, decomposing course, to one of restoration and rebuilding. But in the system of Schleiermacher there are errors both express and implicit. If, for instance, we examine his views respecting original sin, it would appear to be at variance with Scripture teaching, in that he would reduce it to a simple negation. In the system of Schleiermacher, the fall of Adam appears as no more than the publication of the weakness and imperfection to which, as a created being, he was necessarily liable. As a consequence of this, the redeeming and reconciling offices of Christ become limited to filling up the inherent deficiency of the creature. Moreover, his views respecting the connexion of the Old and New Testaments cannot be regarded as adequate: and the meagreness of his system respecting the historical basis of Christianity, has perhaps attracted less attention than it would otherwise have done, from the rude excesses of the later Hegelism.

62. Theology of the Anglican Church.-It would far exceed our limits to enter upon a detailed account of the rise and progress of Anglican Theology. Like the more material institutions, and, indeed, like the whole system of thought and action in its country, it has a character peculiarly its own-difficult of comprehension without its pale, nor easily portrayed by those within it. To arrive at a correct estimate of the theological character of any branch of the Catholic Church, it is necessary to examine its fruits in the standard and recognised writings which have been put forth by the oracles of cach division. But the theological literature of the Anglican Church having arisen for the most part under the pressure of external circumstances, there is in consequence a dearth of the systematic works which may be found elsewhere. Nor is this difficulty diminished by the most striking peculiarity of the Articles of the Church in question, the compilers of which appear to have anticipated the thought of Leighton, that, leaving a latitude and indifferency in things capable of it, is often a stronger preserver of peace and unity than more stringent measures. Before the separation from Rome, the reputation of British-born theologians was rather Catholic than national. The fame of Alexander Hales and William Occam belonged as much to Christendom as to England. Most of Wiclif's (d. 1384) works, although relating to important truths, possess no more than a temporary interest.

63. The earliest theological writings which may fairly be regarded as Anglican, arose from the movements connected with the Reformation.

These, as is well known, are of a controversial or educational cast; being intended either to confute papal antagonists, or to serve as formularies of the doctrines then disencumbered of human additions. Some of the former are marked by what appears to us a spirit of hostility to Rome as uncharitable, as the exclusive application of Antichrist, by their authors, to that Church would seem to be inconsistent with historical truth. The chief claim of the reformers on the gratitude of posterity is, that they taught with zeal and plainness the doctrine of justification by faith; that they gave, like their foreign brethren, a striking prominence to the scriptural doctrine of the matter of justifying righteousness. All these writings bear more or less the impress of the middle character which distinguishes the Anglican Church, on either hand, from that of Rome and from her sisters of the Reformation. The tumults and dangers of her early days concluded, the theological powers of her great men were evoked by internal controversies; the first fruit of which appeared in the ecclesiastical policy of Hooker.

It is undeniable, that about that period doctrines identical with those of Calvin were inculcated from various professional chairs, and that its tenets were regarded as at least consistent with the Articles. Were our judgement to be guided by the opinions of Whitgift, Abbot, or Davenant, on this matter, the asserted doctrinal Calvinism of the confession of the Anglican Church would appear to be borne out. But the general doctrine of the Articles was not quoted as positively inclining to Calvinism. This was tacitly admitted in the attempt made to introduce alterations more favourable to those particular views at the Hampton Court Conference in 1603. But if additional proof were needed, it is obvious that the doctrine of universal redemption, and of falling away from grace, as laid down in the Articles of the Church of England, are inconsistent with Calvinism. The former doctrine, which was maintained by the British divines at the Synod of Dort, if fairly carried out, is fatal to the system of the Five Points. And if the tone of the Anglican Liturgy and Offices be consulted (as they surely may be) for the purpose of throwing light upon the sentiments of those by whom the great work of the Reformation was carried through, such an examination will be found to make strongly against the notion of any predominant Calvinistic tendency: for the tone of these formularies (and perhaps more strikingly so in their original form, than as they are read at present) is that which breathes throughout the writings of St. John-of mature Christianity-of that foretaste of heaven which is found in the union of true faith in Christ, with its fruits in the heart and life; not that combination of Old-Testament views with certain perversions of the writings of St. Paul, which is designated by the name of Calvinism, and ordinarily to the exclusion of the valuable truths in the writings of that great man.

64. A happy and prosperous course seemed to await the developement of Anglican Theology. Her teachers were all fully impressed with the great fundamental doctrine of Christianity above adverted to; her formularies would seem to bar that neglect of the fruits of faith, which,