inscriptions, They abound not only on sarcophagi, mummy cases, and other similar remains, where we naturally expect to find them, but also on earthen cups, brazen vessels, boxes, articles of domestic furniture, etc., as to which the motive for inscribing them is much more difficult of comprehension ; yet groups of figures, with long accompanying explanations in hieroglyphics, frequently occur even on these objects.

It is also needful to explain, (in order to convey a correct impression of the extent to which the art of design was applied in ancient Egypt,) that the characters which compose this their system of writing are all the pictorial representations of the heavenly bodies, men, animals, birds, articles of dress, furniture, and other physical objects.

The purpose of the Egyptians in their use of the art of design was very different to that of the Greeks, from whom modern art has been altogether derived. It was not to excite the imagination, but to inform the understanding; not to give pleasure, but to convey facts, that painting and sculpture were employed in Egypt. According to Clement of Alexandria, an Egyptian temple was ypáupa, "a writing;" it addressed itself to the mind in the same manner as a book. And, to proceed with the metaphor, the groups of figures which covered it with their hieroglyphic explanations were the several chapters or sections of which the book was composed. So that it was designed to be a written record of the historical facts which led to its erection, and of the Mythic fables, in conformity to which it was dedicated.

It will usefully illustrate the extent to which this mode of speaking of an Egyptian temple was literal rather than metaphorical, if we give here some account of the devices which were engraved at the entrance, generally on the

propyla, which are two truncated pyramids placed on either side of the gateway. On each of these was designed a gigantic figure of the Pharaoh by whom the temple was built, grasping with his left hand the hair of one or more captives who are kneeling before him, and brandishing a sword or club in his right hand. These captives represent the nations who were conquered in the war, the events of which are detailed on the walls in the interior of the temple, and whose spoils had contributed to its erection, having been consecrated to that use by the conqueror. So that these designs really answer the purpose both of title pages and tables of contents. We subjoin an example, which is the title page to the cave at Ipsambul.

top, read—" The living good god, the glorious guardian, smiting the south country," (that is, Africa,) "treading down the north country," (that is, Asia; some of the captives he is smiting have the features and complexions of Africans, others of Asiatics: the walls of the temple itself are covered with an immense scene, representing his campaigns in both these continents,) "the victorious king cometh smiting with the sword the boundaries of all the nations of the world." Then follow the names of the hero, "The lord of the world (sun, guardian of justice approved of the sun, Sesostris.) The lord of Egypt, (Ramses, beloved of Amon.") Immediately above his head is Harn-hat, the celestial sun, the symbol of sovereignty. The vulture holding a ring in its claws is the symbol of victory. The two columns immediately under his arm read, "King of an obedient people, the righteous Horns, lord of the sword. Devoted to Seben, (the goddess of victory, the vulture,) living lord of the world, who is in this cave, his glorious habitation." On the left is the god Amon, to whom the cave is dedicated, holding out a sword to Sesostris. Over him is written, "Thus saith Amon-ra, the lord of the thrones of the world, Take thy sword, smite with it; we have given thee to tranquillize the south country, Africa; to conquer the north country, to trample under foot all the evil races of the world; to multiply thy great halls beyond the boundaries of Egypt." Ipsambul is not in Egypt proper. The last phrase is obscure.

The paintings in the tombs have also the same design. They represent supposed facts; the events of the life of the deceased, or the adventures of his soul after death. Clearness of idea, therefore, not pictorial effect, was the primary object of art in Egypt.

The state of the arts of design among the Egyptians was entirely modified by this circumstance. Their artists made their imitations of nature sufficiently close to convey the intended idea with clearness and precision; and when that was attained, they had no motive for attempting any further improvement. It is the different degrees of accuracy which different objects require, in order that the picture may convey a clear and unequivocal idea to the mind, that doubtless has produced the singular unevenness (so to speak) which characterizes the remains of Egyptian art. For example: but little pains is generally taken with the human figure; its details are given imperfectly and incorrectly. And for an obvious reason. A very rude sketch will suffice to convey the idea, so that mistake shall be impossible; and that was generally all the artist wanted. But, in the same column or group with these ill drawn figures, the birds are often executed with a fidelity and spirit which can only be attained by the careful study of nature, and which could hardly be surpassed even by modern artists; and the reason is equally obvious. All this accuracy is required in order to the clear specification of the bird intended. Instances, moreover, are not wanting of Egyptian statues in which the details of the human form are more carefully attended to; and the Egyptians evidently excelled in the art of taking portraits, which was one of their modes of specifying the individual man or woman they intended to represent. The features of several of the Pharaohs are well known and easily recognized wherever they occur. So that it was not from any defect in the national taste or capacity that the productions of art in Egypt are inferior to those of Greece, but because of the very different pur

poses for which the arts were cultivated in the two countries.

As exactitude rather than effect has generally been the primary object of the Egyptian artists, and as they stopped short even of this when their designs were sufficiently accurate to convey the idea intended, another peculiarity appears in their productions. They were entirely unacquainted with the arts of perspective in drawing, and of the application of light and shade in colouring; they evidently did not feel the necessity of acquiring them, as their designs were conventionally understood without such assistance. Much distortion, both in drawing their figures and in arranging them, has arisen from these defects, which render Egyptian paintings and reliefs exceedingly difficult of comprehension to a modern and unpractised eye. A brief account of some of the more remarkable of these peculiarities may not be unacceptable.

The human face is almost always designed in profile both on flat surfaces and in reliefs, but, with the exception of the nose it is really half the full face. The figure which accompanies this face is also distorted; the body is represented in front, the legs and feet in profile. In the very few instances where a side view of the whole was intended,

but one arm and one foot are visible and seem to be all of