tion to the present. The expression, "If he studies," obviously refers to a present course of study, though it implies uncertainty on the part of the person using it, whether the individual of whom he speaks, does, or does not, study. On the other hand, "If he study," has respect to future study, and is evidently an abbreviation of "If he should study."

The Tenses of verbs are the various forms which they assume, to express time, and to mark likewise an action or state, as progressive, or as complete. The Indicative mood is usually considered to have six tenses, which, in the case of the verb "to rule," may be thus exhibited:

Present, I rule.
Imperfect, I ruled.
I was ruling.
Perfect, I have ruled.

Pluperfect, I had ruled.

1st. Future, I shall, or will, rule.

2d. Future, I shall have ruled.

Each of these forms requires separate consideration.
The Present tense generally refers, as its name implies,

to that which now is, as "I rule,"
"" I love." In some

66

instances, it expresses that which is customary, as He thinks accurately." It is found also in general propositions, which have no particular relation to time, as "From nothing nothing proceeds." Occasionally it is used to give a vivid representation of past transactions, -to bring them before the mind as if actually present. Thus we say, "Cæsar commands his army to advance," "Socrates reasons powerfully." In a few connexions, this tense may be introduced when future time is, in fact, implied; as "When he arrives, he will hear the news."

The Imperfect tense is usually regarded as embracing the two forms above mentioned, "I ruled,” and “I was ruling." Between these forms of the verb there is however, a considerable difference; and if we select the verb 66 to travel" as our illustration, the difference becomes still more obvious and striking. The sentence, "I travelled from London to York," represents the travelling as past and complete; but "I was travelling from London to York," represents it as progressive. To the latter mode of expression only, can the name

Imperfect be applied with propriety; while the former, "I travelled," "I ruled," &c., may be more correctly termed the Indefinite Perfect, or, to borrow an epithet from the Greek language, and one which is applied to that tense in Greek, which corresponds to the English "I ruled," "I travelled," the Aorist.

દ

The Perfect tense, or as it may be properly styled, the Definite Perfect, either points out an action as just now finished, or brings a past and complete action into some connexion with the present. Thus, "I have come from London," "Cicero has written orations," allusion being made in the latter sentence, to orations which are still extant.

The force of the Pluperfect tense may be clearly discerned in the sentence, "I had completed my arrangements, when he arrived." It not only represents an action as past and complete, but it marks this circumstance also, that it was complete before some action or event, now past, took place.

The First Future tense exhibits an action as future, or yet to come. In some cases, indeed, the terms "shall" and "will," by means of which it is formed, imply a fixed purpose, or resolution, as "He shall go,' "I will assert this principle;" but as far as time is concerned, this tense simply expresses futurity.

66

The Second Future tense represents an action as one that will be finished before some particular time: as 'I shall have dined at two o'clock."

66

In the Imperative mood, only the Present tense is recognised, as Rule thou." The Potential is considered to have the four following tenses :-Present, "I may, or can, rule,"-Imperfect, "I might, could, would, or should, rule,"-Perfect, "I may, or can, have ruled,"-Pluperfect, "I might, could, would, or should have ruled." The investigation of the peculiar uses of each of these forms, would be too extensive for this general outline of English grammar.

In the Subjunctive mood, we have all the tenses of the Indicative, without any change of form, excepting that which occurs in the present tense, when employed to suppose a thing in relation to the future; as, "If he

study," "Though he slay me," used for "If he should study,' 'Though he should slay me." It will perhaps be asked, What reason exists for ascribing so many tenses to the Subjunctive mood, if with a single exception, they have precisely the same form as in the Indicative? The reply is, that in the Indicative they are used to assert a thing as actual; and in the Subjunctive only to suppose it. Thus in the clause, “They knew this before," the verb "knew belongs to the Indicative mood, since it forms part of a positive assertion; but in the sentence, "If they knew this before, they are very culpable," it becomes Subjunctive, because it occurs in a supposition. This view of the Subjunctive mood, enables us to preserve consistency in the explanation of such expressions as "Had they known this," "If they had known this." In the former of these, the verb "had known" must certainly be recognised as Subjunctive; it does, of itself, convey a supposition, and the peculiar position of the auxiliary "had" and the principal verb "known," renders a conjunction unnecessary. But if in this phrase, the verb is regarded as Subjunctive, it should likewise be viewed as sustaining this character in, "If they had known this," a phrase which differs from the preceding, only in having the conjunction expressed, and the auxiliary and the principal verb, placed in intimate connexion.

The Infinitive mood has only two tenses, the Present, "to rule," and the Perfect, "to have ruled."

A correct application of the tenses of verbs, is of the highest importance in every kind of writing. If that which is usually styled the Imperfect, be used for the Perfect, or the Perfect for the Pluperfect, the meaning as well as the beauty of a sentence, must be considerably affected and injured. It is particularly necessary to exercise care in the use of the tenses, when two verbs are associated, so that the latter expresses time in relation to the time of the former. It would be not only inelegant, but incorrect, to say, "I wished to have written," in order to express a past intention of writing; for the present tense of the Infinitive, "I wished

to write," is evidently required to show, that the writing did not precede the wish, but was immediately to follow it. The difference between " He appeared to study Greek," and "He appeared to have studied Greek," must be perceptible to every one who contrasts these expressions. The former exhibits the studying as present in relation to the time intimated by the verb "appeared;" the latter presents it as past, in relation to that time. Obvious as these particulars are, when they are distinctly considered, they may escape the attention of a writer, intent on the general train of ideas which he wishes to communicate, unless his mind is formed, by the constant habit of discrimination, to accuracy and elegance of style. The Numbers and Persons of verbs correspond to those of substantives and pronouns. Thus in the present tense of the Indicative mood of the verb "to rule," we find,

The Participles of verbs have their name from the circumstance, that they partake of the characters of verbs and adjectives. They express action, suffering, or a state of being, like verbs, and this with a reference to time but they are construed with substantives and pronouns, in the same manner as adjectives. The following are instances of their use ;- "Cæsar, confiding in the valour of his troops, advanced to action," "Having engaged to be present, he could not but attend," "Loved and caressed, he became effeminate." Every active, neuter, and passive verb has three participles: thus, "I love" has "loving," "loved," and "having loved." "I walk" has "walking," "walked," "having walked; " and "I am loved" has "being loved," "loved," "having been loved." The neuter participle "walked," and the active "loved," are however, never used except in the formation of the compound tenses, as 66 I have walked," "I had loved." In the example, "Loved and

caressed, he became effeminate," the term "loved " is evidently a passive participle.

Respecting participles it is important to observe, that they express time, in relation to the time of the verb with which they are connected. Thus is the sentence, "Cæsar, confiding in the valour of his troops, advanced to action," the participle "confiding" is present, although the feeling which it expresses, is in reality past; for it is designed to mark the confidence of Cæsar, as present at the time of his advancing to action.

It is generally allowed, that some participles occasionally pass into adjectives. The word "loving" for instance, which is a participle in the sentence, "Many, loving the pleasures of the world, reject the invitations of Divine mercy," becomes an adjective in the expression, "A loving and attentive child." In the former instance, it points out a particular state of feeling, at some given time: in the latter, it exhibits the general character of the child in question.

ADVERBS are words added to verbs, adjectives, and sometimes to other adverbs, to express concisely an additional idea. They differ very considerably in their particular reference and import; and the only point of similarity between them appears to be, that each stands in the place of a lengthened phrase, or a distinct clause. Thus we say, "He reads correctly," for "in a correct manner; "He did it here," for "in this place; "This statement is sufficiently explicit," for "explicit in a sufficient degree;""They acted very wisely," for "in a manner distinguished by great wisdom."

66

99 66

Some adverbs admit of a change of form to intimate the degrees of comparison; as 'soon,' sooner," "soonest." In the case of others, these degrees are expressed by the terms more and most; as more wisely," most wisely."

66

66

PREPOSITIONS are little words put before substantives, to show the relations of persons and things. In the sentence, "It lies beneath the surface of the earth," the word "beneath" shows the situation of the object spoken of, in relation to the surface of the earth; and in the sentence, "He went from London to York," the two