انا viling the one or putting a stumbling-block in the way of the her. In Deut. xxvii. 18. a curse is denounced against him who misleads the blind. III. With regard to those whom misfortune or other circumstances had reduced to poverty, various humane regulations were made for though Moses had, by his statutes relative to the division of the land, studied to prevent any Israelites from being born poor, yet he nowhere indulges the hope that there would actually be no poor. On the contrary he expressly says (Deut. xv. 11.), THE POOR shall never cease out of thy land; and he enjoins the Hebrews to open wide their hands to their brethren, to the poor and to the needy in their land. He exhorts the opulent to assist a decayed Israelite with a loan, and not to refuse even though the sabbatical year drew nigh (Deut. xv. 7-10.); and no pledge was to be detained for the loan of money that served for the preservation of his life or health (Deut. xxiv. 12, 13.), or was necessary to enable him to procure bread for himself and family, as the upper and nether mill-stones. During harvest, the owner of a field was prohibited from reaping the corn that grew in its corners, or the after-growth: and the scattered ears, or sheaves carelessly left on the ground, equally belonged to the poor. After a man had once shaken or beaten his olive trees, he was not permitted to gather the olives that still hung on them: so that the fruit, which did not ripen until after the season of gathering, belonged to the poor. (Lev. xix. 9, 10. Deut. xxiv. 19, 20, 21. Ruth ii. 219.) Further, whatever grew during the sabbatical year, in the fields, gardens, or vineyards, the poor might take at pleasure, having an equal right to it with the owners of the land. Another important privilege enjoyed by the poor was, what were called second tenths and second firstlings. "Besides the tenth received by the Levites, the Israelites were obliged to set apart another tenth of their field and garden produce; and in like manner, of their cattle, a second set of offerings, for the purpose of presenting as thank offerings at the high festivals." Of these thank offerings only certain fat pieces were consuined on the altar: the remainder, after deducting the priest's portion, was appropriated to the sacrifice feasts, to which the Israelites were bound to invite the stranger, the widow, and the orphan. "When any part of these tenths remained, which they had not been able to bring to the altar. or to consume as offerings, they were obliged every three years to make a conscientious estimate of the amount, and, without presenting it as an offering to God, employ it in benevolent entertainments in their native cities." (Deut. xii. 5-12. 17-19. xiv. 22-29. xvi. 10, 11. xxvi. 12, 13.)1 But though Moses has made such abundant provision for the poor, yet it does not appear that he has said any thing respecting beggars. The earliest mention of beggars occurs in Psal. cix. 10. In the New Testament, however, we read of beggars, blind, distressed, and maimed, who lay at the doors of the rich, by the way sides, and also before the gate of the temple. (Mark x. 46. Luke xvi. 20, 21. Acts iii. 2.)2 But "we have no reason to suppose, that there existed in the time of Christ that class of persons called vagrant beggars, who present their supplications for alms from door to door, and who are found at the present day in the East, although less frequently than in the countries of Europe. That the custom of seeking alms by sounding a trumpet or horn, which prevails among a class of Mohammedan monastics, Kalendar or Karendal, prevailed also in the time of Christ, may be inferred from Matt. vi. 2.; where the verb axion, which possesses the shade of signification, that would be attached to a corresponding word in the Hiphil form of the Hebrew verbs, is to be rendered transitively, as is the case with many other verbs in the New Testament. There is one thing characteristic of those orientals, who are reduced to the disagreeable necessity of following the vocation of mendicants, which is worthy of being mentioned; they do not appeal to the pity or to the alms-giving spirit, but to the justice of their benefactors. (Job xxii. 7. xxxi. 16. Prov. iíi. 27, 28.)”3 CHAPTER IX. OF THE MILITARY AFFAIRS OF THE JEWS AND OTHER NATIONS MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES. SECTION I. ON THE MILITARY DISCIPLINE OF THE JEWS. L. The earliest Wars, predatory Excursions.-II. Character of the Wars of the Israelites.-Their Levies how raised.— Mosaic Statutes concerning the Israelitish Soldiers.-III. Divisions, and Officers of the Jewish Armies ;—which were sometimes conducted by the Kings in Person.—Military Chariots.—IV. Encampments.-V. Military Schools and Training.— VI. Defensive Arms.—VII. Offensive Arms.—VIII. Fortifications.—IX. Mode of declaring War.—X. Military Tactics.— Order of Battle.-Treatment of the Slain, of captured Cities, and of Captives.-XI. Triumphant Reception of the Conquerors.-XII. Distribution of the Spoil.-Military Honours conferred on eminent Warriors.—A military Order established by David.-XIII. Trophies. I. THERE were not wanting in the earliest ages of the world men who, abusing the power and strength which they possessed to the purposes of ambition, usurped upon their weaker neighbours. Such was the origin of the kingdom founded by the plunderer Nimrod (Gen. x. 8-10.), whose name signifies a rebel; and it was most probably given him, from his rejection of the laws both of God and man, and supporting by force a tyranny over others. As mankind continued to increase, quarrels and contests would naturally arise, and, spreading from individuals to families, tribes and nations, produced wars. Of the military affairs of those times we have very imperfect notices in the Scriptures. This section is chiefly translated from Calmet's Dissertation sur la wars, however, appear to have been nothing more Milice des anciens Hebreux, inserted in the third volume of his Commenthan predatory incursions, like those of the modern Waha- taire Litterale sur la Bible, and also in vol. i. pp. 205-240. of his Dissertabees and Bedouin Arabs, so often described by oriental tra- judgment of the celebrated tactician, the Chevalier Folard, discusses the tions qui peuvent servir de Prolegomènes de l'Ecriture; which, in the vellers. The patriarch, Abraham, on learning that his kins-military affairs of the Hebrews with so much accuracy and knowledge, as man Lot had been taken captive by Chedorlaomer and his to leave scarcely any room for additions. (Dissertation on the Military confederate emirs or petty kings, mustered his trained servants, three hundred and eighteen in number; and coming against the enemy by night, he divided his forces, and totally discomfited them. (Gen. xiv. 14-16.) The other patriarchs also armed their servants and dependants, when a conflict was expected. (Gen. xxxii. 7-12. xxxiii. 1.)4 II. Although the Jews are now the very reverse of being a military people (in which circumstance we may recognise the accomplishment of prophecy), yet anciently they were eminently distinguished for their prowess. But the notices concerning their discipline, which are presented to us in the Sacred Writings, are few and brief. The wars in which the Israelites were engaged, were of two kinds, either such as were expressly enjoined by divine These Tactics of the Hebrews, in vol. iii. p. 535. of the folio English translation of Calmet's Dictionary.) The Dissertation of the Chevalier Folard has also been consulted; together with Alber's Inst. Herm. Vet. Test. tom. i. pp. 239-247.; Schulzii Archæologia Hebraica, pp. 132-146.; Jahn, Archa ologia Biblica, §§ 266-296.; Ackermann, Archæologia Biblica, §§ 260-288.; Home's Hist. of the Jews, vol. ii. pp. 303–316.; Bruning, Antiq. Hebr. pp. 74-91.; Carpzovii Antiquitates Gentis Hebrææ, pp. 665–671. See Lev. xxvi. 36. Deut. xxviii. 65, 66. command, or such as were voluntary and entered upon by the prince for revenging some national affronts, and for the honour of his sovereignty. Of the first sort were those undertaken against the seven nations of Canaan, whom God had devoted to destruction, viz. the Hittites, the Amorites, the Canaanites (strictly so called), the Perizzites, the Hivites, the Jebusites, and the Girgashites. These the Israelites were commanded to extirpate, and to settle themselves in their place. (Deut. vii. 1, 2. and xx. 16, 17.) There were indeed other nations who inhabited this country in the days of Abraham, as may be seen in Gen. xv. 19, 20. But these had either become extinct since that time, or being but a small people were incorporated with the rest. To these seven nations no terms of peace could be offered; for, being guilty of gross idolatries and other detestable vices of all kinds, God thought them unfit to live any longer upon the face of the earth. These wars, thus undertaken by the command of God, were called the wars of the Lord, of which a particular record seems to have been kept, as mentioned in Num. xxi. 14. In the voluntary wars of the Israelites, which were undertaken upon some national account, such as most of those were in the times of the Judges, when the Moabites, Philistines, and other neighbouring nations invaded their country, and such as that of David against the Ammonites, whose king had violated the law of nations by insulting his ambassadors, there were certain rules established by God, which were to regulate their conduct, both in the undertaking and carrying on of these wars. As, first, they were to proclaim peace to them, which, if they accepted, these people were to become tributaries to them; but if they refused, all the males, upon besieging the city, were allowed to be slain, if the Israelites thought fit; but the women and little ones were to be spared, and the cattle with the other goods of the city were to belong, as spoil, to the Israelites. (Deut. xx. 10— 15.) Secondly, in besieging a city they were not to commit unnecessary waste and depredations; for though they were allowed to cut down barren trees of all sorts, to serve the purposes of their approaches, yet they were obliged to spare the fruit trees, as being necessary to support the lives of the inhabitants in future times, when the little rancour, which was the occasion of their present hostilities, should be removed and done away. (Deut. xx. 19, 20.) The Israelites, in the beginning of their republic, appear to have been a timorous and cowardly people; their spirits were broken by their bondage in Egypt; and this base temper soon appeared upon the approach of Pharaoh and his army, before the Israelites passed through the Red Sea, which made them murmur so much against Moses. (Exod. xiv. 10, 11, 12.) But in no instance was their cowardice more evident, than when they heard the report of the spies concerning the inhabitants of the land, which threw them into a fit of despair, and made them resolve to return into Egypt, notwithstanding all the miracles wrought for them by God. (Num. xiv. 1—6.) It was on this account that David, who was well acquainted with their disposition, says, that they got not the land in possession by their own sword, neither did their own arm save them, but thy right hand and thine arm, and the light of thy countenance, because thou hadst a favour unto them. (Psal. xliv. 3.) After their departure from Egypt, the whole of the men, from twenty years and upwards, until the age of fifty (when they might demand their discharge if they chose), were liable to military service, the priests and Levites not excepted. (Num. i. 3. 22. 2 Sam. xxiii. 20. 1 Kings ii. 35.) Like the militia in some countries, and the hardy mountaineers of Lebanon at this day,' they were always ready to assemble at the shortest notice. If the occasion were extremely urgent, affecting their existence as a people, all were summoned to war; but ordinarily, when there was no necessity for convoking the whole of their forces, a selection was made. Thus Joshua chose twelve thousand men, in order to attack the Amalekites (Exod. xvii. 9, 10.): in the war with the Midianites, one thousand men were selected out of each tribe (Num. xxxi. 4, 5.), and in the rash assault upon the city of Ai, three thousand men were employed. (Josh. vii. 3, 4.) The book of Judges furnishes numerous instances of this 1 A recent learned traveller in the Holy Land, describing the present state of Mount Lebanon, says, that, "of the peasants, great numbers carry arms. In fact, every young inan may in some sense be called a soldier, and would in case of need muster as such: the gun which serves him for field-sport and sustenance is ready for the call of war; and his discipline consists in the bracing, hardy habits of a mountaineer." Rev. W. Jowett's Christian Researches in Syria, p. 74. (London, 1825. 8vo.) mode of selection. Hence we read in the Scriptures of choosing the men, not of levying them. In like manner, under the Roman republic, all the citizens of the military age (seventeen to forty-six years) were obliged to serve a certain number of campaigns, when they were commanded. On the day appointed, the consuls held a levy (delectum habebant), by the assistance of the military or legionary tribunes; when it was determined by lot in what manner the tribes should be called. The consuls ordered such as they pleased to be cited out of each tribe, and every one was obliged to answer to his name under a severe penalty. On certain occasions, some of the most refractory were put to death. To the above described mode of selecting troops, our Saviour alluded, when he said that many are called, but few chosen (Matt. xx. 16.): the great mass of the people being convened, choice was made of those who were the most fit for service. This mode of selecting soldiers accounts for the formation of those vast armies, in a very short space of time, of which we read in the Old Testament. The men of Jabesh Gilead, who, in the beginning of Saul's reign, were besieged by the Ammonites, had only seven days' respite given them to send messengers to the coasts of Israel, after which, if no relief came to them, they were to deliver up the city and have their eyes put out, which was the best condition, it seems, they could procure. (1 Sam. xi. 1, 2, 3.) As soon as Saul was informed of it, he, by a symbolical representation of cutting a yoke of oxen in pieces, and sending them all over Israel, signified what should be done to the oxen of such as did not appear upon this summons. In consequence of this summons, we find that an army of three hundred and thirty thousand men was formed, who relieved the place within the seven days allowed them. In like manner, when the children of Israel had heard of the crime that was committed by the inhabitants of Gibeah against the Levite's concubine, it is said, that they resolved not to return to their houses till they had fully avenged this insult (Judg. xx. 8.), and accordingly, upon the tribe of Benjamin's refusing to deliver up these men, an army was soon gathered together of four hundred thousand men of war. (verse 17.) Nor was the providing of their armies with necessaries any impediment to these sudden levies; for in the beginning of the Jewish republic, their armies consisting altogether of infantry, every one served at their own expense, and ordinarily carried their own arms and provisions along with them. And thus we find that Jesse sent a supply of provisions by David to his other three sons that were in Saul's camp (1 Sam. xvii. 13. 17.), which gave David an opportunity of engaging Goliath ; and this was the chief reason why their wars in those days were ordinarily but of a short continuance, it being hardly possible that a large body could subsist long upon such provisions as every one carried along with him. After the time of Solomon, their armies became vastly numerous: we read that Abijah king of Judah had an army of four hundred thousand men, with which he fought Jeroboam king of Israel, who had double that number (2Chron. xiii. 3.), and it is said there were five hundred thousand killed of Jeroboam's army. (ver. 17.) Asa king of Judah had an army of nearly six hundred thousand men, when he was attacked by Zerah the Ethiopian with a host of a million of men. (2 Chron. xiv. 8, 9.) hoshaphat king of Judah had eleven hundred and sixty thou sand men, without reckoning the garrisons in his fortified places. (2 Chron. xvii. 14-19.). Je Various regulations were made by Moses concerning the Israelitish soldiers, which are characterized by equal wisdom and humanity. Not to repeat what has already been noticed above, we may remark that the following classes of persons were wholly exempted from military service (Deut. xx. 5—8. xxiv. 5.); viz. 1. He, who had built a new house, and had not dedicated it, was to return home, lest he should die in battle, and another man dedicate it. From the title of Psal. xxx.-A Psalm or Song at the dedication of the house of David,-it was evidently a custom in Israel to dedicate a new house to Jehovah, with prayer, praise, and thanksgiving, in order that he might obtain the divine blessing. 2. Those who had planted a vine or olive yard, and who had not yet eaten of its produce. 3. Every man who had betrothed a wife and had not taken her home. It is well known, that among the Jews a considerable time sometimes elapsed between the espousal or betrothing of the parties and the celebration of a marriage. When the bridegroom had made proper preparations, the 2 Dr. Adam's Roman Antiquities, pp. 362, 363. fifth edit. bride was conducted to his house, and the nuptials were consummated. 4. Every newly married man, during the first year after his marriage. The humanity of these exemptions will be the more evident, when it is recollected that, anciently, it was deemed an excessive hardship for a person to be obliged to go to battle (in which there was a probability of his being slain) who had left a new house unfinished, a newly purchased heritage half tilled, or a wife with whom he had just contracted marriage. Homer represents the case of Protesilaus as singularly afflicting, who was obliged to go to the Trojan war, leaving his wife in the deepest distress, and his house unfinished.' 5. The last exemption was in favour of the fearful and faint hearted; an exemption of such a disgraceful nature, that one would think it never would have been claimed. Such, however, was the case in Gideon's expedition against the Midianites. Ten thousand only remained out of thirtytwo thousand, of which number his army originally consisted; twenty-two thousand having complied with his proclamation, that whosoever was fearful and afraid might return and depart early from Mount Gilead. (Judg. vii. 3.)2 Before the regal government was established, the Israelitish army was entirely disbanded at the conclusion of a war. The earliest instance recorded of any military force being kept in time of peace, is in the reign of Saul, who retained two thousand for his body guard, and one thousand for his son Jonathan's guard. (1 Sam. xiii. 1, 2.) David had a distinct guard, called Cherethites and Pelethites, concerning the origin of whose name various contradictory opinions have been offered. Josephus, however, expressly says, that they were his guards, and the Chaldee paraphrast terms them archers and slingers.3 Besides these he had twelve bodies of twenty-four thousand men each, who were on duty for one month, forming an aggregate of two hundred and eighty-eight thousand men. (1 Chron. xxvii. 1-15.) Subsequently, when the art of war was improved, a regular force seems to have been kept up both in peace and war; for, exclusive of the vast army which Jehoshaphat had in the field, we read that he had troops throughout all the fenced cities, which doubtless were garrisoned in time of peace as well as during war. III. The OFFICERS who were placed at the head of the Hebrew forces appear not to have differed materially from those whom we find in ancient and modern armies. The Division of the army into three bands or companies, mentioned in Gen. xiv. 14, 15. Job i. 17. Judg. vii. 16. 20. 1 Sam. xi. 11. and 2 Sam. xviii. 2., was probably no other than the division into the centre, left, and right wing, which obtains in the modern art of war. The Hebrews, when they departed from Egypt, marched in military order, on (AL TSEBOTAM) by their armies or hosts (Exod. xii. 51.), and (VE-CHаMUSHIM), which word in our English Bibles (Exod. xiii. 18.) is rendered harnessed, and in the margin, by five in a rank. It is probable, from these expressions, that they followed each other in ranks fifty deep, and that at the head of each rank or file of fifty was the captain of fifty. (1 Sam. viii. 12. 2 Kings i. 9-14.) The other divisions consisted of tens, hundreds, thousands, &c.; and the officers that commanded them are styled captains of thousands, captains of hundreds, captains of fifties, and captains of tens; of these mention is made in 1 Chron. xii. 14. 20. xiii. 1. xxviii. 1. and 2 Kings i. 9. 11. 13. These, probably, were of the same rank with those whom Moses constituted in the wilderness, rulers of thousands, &c. (Exod. xviii. 25.), and who at first acted in a double capacity, being at the same time civil magistrates and military officers. The captains of thousands seem to have been much the same as colonels of regiments with us; and the captains of hundreds might probably answer to those who in our army have the command of troops and companies; the captains of fifties and tens to our subalterms, sergeants, and corporals. During the Mosaic commonwealth, in conformity to the law in Deut. xx. 9., all these officers were appointed by the Snoterim, genealogists or officers (as they are termed in our version), who probably chose the heads of families; but after the monarchy took place, they received their commissions either from the king in the same manner as at present, as appears from 2 Sam. xviii. 1. and 2 Chron. xxv. 5.; or from the commander-in-chief (2 Sam. xviii. 11.): and it should seem that a captain's commission was denoted by giving a military girdle or sash. (2 Sam. xviii. 11.) The first and principal Head of the armies of Israel was the Almighty himself, who is so frequently termed in Scripture the Lord of Hosts. The whole nation marched forth under the superintending guidance of their God. Subordinate to Him, and as his lieutenant-general, was the principal officer, or leader of the whole army, who, in the Scriptures, is termed the CAPTAIN OF THE LORD'S HOST, and who appears to have been of the same rank with him who is now called the commander-in-chief of an army. Such were Joshua and the Judges under the primitive constitution of their government as settled by God himself: such was Abner under Saul (2 Sam. ii. 8.), Joab under David (2 Sam. xx. 23.), and Amasa under Absalom, when he was raising a rebellion against his father. (2 Sam. xvii. 25.) The command and authority of this captain of the host appear to have been very great, sometimes indeed, nearly equal to that of the sovereign. David seems to have been afraid of Joab his commander-in-chief; otherwise he would never have suffered him to live after the sanguinary assassinations which he had perpetrated. It is evident that the captain of the host enjoyed great influence in the time of Elisha: for we read, that the prophet having been hospitably entertained by an opulent woman at Shunem, and being desirous of making her some acknowledgment for her kindness, ordered his servant Gehazi to inquire what she would wish to have done for her. Wouldst thou be spoken for to the king, or to the CAPTAIN OF THE HOST? (2 Kings iv. 13.) After the establishment of the monarchy, the kings went to war in person, and at first fought on foot, like the meanest of their soldiers. Thus David fought, until the danger to which he exposed himself became so great, that his people would no longer allow him to lead them on to battle. (2 Sam. xxi. 17.) It does not appear that there were any horse in the Israelitish army before the time of Solomon. In the time of David there were none; for the rebel Absalom was mounted on a mule in the battle in which he lost his life. (2 Sam. xviii. 9.) Solomon, who had married the daughter of the king of Egypt, procured horses from that country at a great expense (1 Kings x. 28, 29.); and afterwards had four thousand stalls for horses and chariots, and twelve thousand horsemen. (2 Chron. ix. 25.) From Zech. xiv. 20. it should seem, that bells formed a part of the caparison of war-horses. Subsequent kings of Judah and Israel went into the battle in chariots, arrayed in their royal vestments, or sometimes in disguise. They generally had a spare chariot to attend them: thus we read that king Josiah, after he was mortally wounded, was taken out of his war-chariot, and put into another, in which he was carried to Jerusalem. (2 Chron. xxxv. 23, 24. 1 Kings xxii. 34.) Both kings and generals had armourbearers, who were chosen from the bravest of the soldiery, and not only bore the arms of their masters, but were also employed to give his commands to the subordinate captains, and were present at his side in the hour of peril. (1 Sam. xiv. 6. xvii. 7.) Military chariots were much in use among the Egyptians, Canaanites, and other oriental nations. Two sorts are mentioned in the Scriptures; one in which princes and generals rode, the other to break the enemy's battalions by rushing in among them, armed with iron scythes, which caused terrible havoc. The most ancient war-chariots, of which we read, are those of Pharaoh, which were destroyed in the Red Sea (Exod. xiv. 7.): his infantry, cavalry, and war-chariots were so arranged as to form separate divisions of his army. (Exod. xiv. 6, 7.) The Canaanites, whom Joshua engaged at the waters of Merom, had cavalry and a multitude of chariots. (Josh. xi. 4.) Sisera, the general of Jabin, king of Hazor, had nine hundred chariots of iron in his army. (Judg. iv. 3.) The tribe of Judah could not obtain possession of part of the lands allotted to them, because the inhabitants of the country were strong in chariots of iron. (Judg. i. 19.) The PhilisLos of Hosts, or armies; because the Israelites were brought out of tines, in their war with Saul, had thirty thousand chariots, Ezypt under his direction, marshalled and ordered by himself, guided by and six thousand horsemen. (1 Sam. xiií. 5.) David, having Lis wisdom, supported by his providence, and protected by his might. taken a thousand war-chariots from Hadadezer, king of DaThis is the true and simple reason, why God is so frequently Scripture the Lord of Hosts: for the LORD did bring the children of ramascus, ham-strung the horses, and burnt nine hundred cha 1 Пad, lib. ii. 700-702. Michaelis's Commentaries, vol. iii. pp. 34-37. On this subject the reader may consult the Dissertations of Ikenius, De Crethi et Plethi (Lug. Bat. 1749), and of Lakemacher, Observationes Pidologice, part ii. pp. 11-44., and also Michaelis's Commentaries on the Law of Moses, § 232. It is from this circumstance "that the Divine Being calls himself the out of Egypt by their armies." Dr. A. Clarke's Commentary, on Exod. . 51. • They were also used among the ancient Britons. riots, reserving only one hundred. (2 Sam. viii. 4.) It does not appear that the Hebrews ever used chariots in war, though Solomon had a considerable number; but we know of no military expedition in which he employed them. In the second book of Maccabees, mention is made of chariots armed with scythes, which the king of Syria led against the Jews. (2 Macc. xiii. 2.) These chariots were generally placed on the whole front of the infantry, ranged in a straight line, parallel sometimes to the cavalry. Some of them were with four, others with two wheels only: these were driven against the enemy, whom they never failed to put into disorder, when they were followed closely by the line. There were two ways of rendering them useless: first, by opening a passage for them through the battalions; secondly, by killing the horses before they were too far advanced: in which case they were of the greatest disservice to those who employed them, because they not only embarrassed them, but, further, broke the closeness of the line, and checked all the force of the onset. The infantry were divided into lightarmed troops, and into spearmen. (Gen. xlix. 19. 1 Sam. xxx. 8. 15. 23. 2 Sam. iii. 22. iv. 2. xxii. 30. Psal. xviii. 30. in the Hebrew, 29. of our English version, 2 Kings v. 2. Hos. vii. 1.) The light-armed troops of infantry were furnished with a sling and javelin, with a bow, arrows, and quiver, and also, at least in later times, with a buckler: they fought the enemy at a distance. The spearmen, on the contrary, who were armed with spears, swords, and shields, fought hand to hand. (1 Chron. xii. 24. 34. 2 Chron. xiv. 8. xvii. 17.) The light-armed troops were commonly taken from the tribes of Ephraim and Benjamin. (2 Chron. xiv. 8. xvii. 17.) IV. No information is given us in the Scriptures, concerning the order of ENCAMPMENT adopted by the Israelites after their settlement in Canaan. During their sojourning in the wilderness, the form of their camp, according to the account given in Num. ii., appears to have been quadrangular, having three tribes placed on each side, under one general standard, so as to inclose the tabernacle, which stood in the centre. Between these four great camps and the tabernacle were pitched four smaller camps of the priests and Levites, who were immediately in attendance upon it; the camp of Moses and of Aaron and his sons (who were the ministering priests, and had the charge of the sanctuary) was on the east side of the tabernacle, where the entrance was. From Isa. liv. 2. it appears that the tents, under which they lived, were nearly the same as those which are now in use in the East. Every family and household had their particular ensign; under which they encamped or pursued their march. Rabbinical writers assert that the standard of Judah was a lion; that of Reuben, the figure of a man; that of Ephraim, an ox; that of Dan, an eagle with a serpent in his talons: but for these assertions there is no foundation. They are probably derived from the patriarch's prophetic blessing of his children, related in Gen. xlix. It is far more likely, that the names of the several tribes were embroidered in large letters on their respective standards, or that they were distinguished by appropriate colours. The following diagram, after Ainsworth, Roberts, and Dr. A. Clarke,2 will, perhaps, give the reader a tolerable idea of the beautiful order of the Israelitish encampment; the sight of which, from the mountains of Moab, extorted from Balaam (when he saw Israel abiding in his tents according to their tribes) the following exclamation:-"How goodly are thy tents, O Jacob, and thy tabernacles, O Israel! As the valleys are they spread forth, as gardens by the river's side, as the trees of lign-alves which the Lord hath planted, and as cedar trees beside the waters. (Num. xxiv. 2. 5, 6.) During the encampment of the Israelites in the wilderness, der), attended the wagons with the boards, staves, &c. When Moses made various salutary enactments, which are recorded these were on their march a second alarm was sounded, in Deut. xxiii. 10–15., for guarding against the vice and un- upon which the standard of Reuben's camp advanced with cleanliness that might otherwise have prevailed among so the three tribes under it. After them followed the Kohathlarge a body of people, forming an aggregate of upwards of ites (the third family of the Levites) bearing the sanctuary, three millions. The following was the order of their march, that is, the Holy of Holies and the utensils thereto belong which is not much unlike that in which the caravans or assem-ing; and because this was less cumbersome than the boards, blages of oriental travellers still continue to move:-When they were to remove (which was only when the cloud was taken off the tabernacle), the trumpet was sounded, and upon the first alarm the standard of Judah being raised, the three tribes which belonged to it set forward; then the tabernacle being taken down, which was the proper office of the Levites, the Gershonites and the Merarites (two families of that or pillars, and other parts of the tabernacle, and more holy, it was on that account not put into a wagon, but carried on their shoulders. Next followed the standard of Ephraim's Lamy de Tabernaculo, lib. iii. c. 2. Carpzov has given at length the rabbinical descriptions of the Israelitish standards. Antiq. Hebr. Gentis. pp. 667, 668. In their Commentaries, on Num. ii. Roberts's Calvis Bibliorum, p. 24. folio edit. read of brazen shields, helmets, and bows; the helmet, camp with the tribes belonging to it: and last of all the other | brass, principally of the latter metal. In the Scriptures we three tribes under the standard of Dan brought up the rear; Moses and Aaron overseeing the whole, that every thing was done as God had directed, while the sons of Aaron were chiefly employed in blowing the trumpets, and other offices properly belonging to them. From 1 Sam. xxvi. 5., as rendered in our authorized version (Saul lay in the trench, and the people pitched round about him), it has been imagined that the Israelites had a fortified camp. The proper rendering is, that Saul lay among the baggage, with his spear stuck at his head (v. 7.), in the same manner as is usual among the Persians, and also among the Arabs to this day, wherever the disposition of the ground will permit it: their emir or prince being in the centre of the Arabs around him at a respectful distance. When David is | represented as sometimes secreting himself in the night, when he was with his armies, instead of lodging with the people (2 Sam. xvii. 8, 9.), it probably means that he did not lodge in the middle of the camp, which was the proper place for a king, in order that he might the better avoid any surprise from his enemies.3 V. In ancient times the Hebrews received no pay, during their military service: the same practice of gratuitous service obtained among the Greeks and Romans, in the early period of their respective republics. The Cherethites and Pelethites appear to have been the first stipendiary soldiers: it is however probable, that the great military officers of Saul, David, Solomon, and the other kings, had some allowance suitable to the dignity of their rank. The soldiers were paid out of the king's treasury: and in order to stimulate their valour, rewards and honours were publicly bestowed on those who distinguished themselves against the enemy; consisting of pecuniary presents, a girdle or belt, a woman of quality for a wife, exemptions from taxes, promotion to a higher rank in the army, &c. all of which were attended with great profit and distinction. (2 Sam. xviii. 11. Josh. xv. 16. 1 Sam. xviii. 25. 1 Chron. xi. 6.) In the age of the Maccabees, the patriot Simon both armed and paid his brave companions in arms, at his own expense. (1 Macc. xiv. 32.) Afterwards, it became an established custom, that all soldiers should receive pay. (Luke iii. 14. 1 Cor. ix. 7.) 1. The HELMET yn (KOBANG), for covering and defending the head. This was a part of the military provision made by Uzziah for his vast army (2 Chron. xxvi. 14.): and long before the time of that king, the helmets of Saul and of the Philistine champion were of brass. (1 Sam. xvii. 38. 5.) This military cap was also worn by the Persians, Ethiopians, and Libyans (Ezek. xxxviii. 5.), and by the troops which Antiochus sent against Judas Maccabeus. (1 Macc. vi. 35.) 2. The BREAST-PLATE OF CORSLET, (SH RION) was another piece of defensive armour. Goliath, and the soldiers of Antiochus (1 Sam. xvii. 5. 1 Macc. vi. 35.) were accoutred with this defence, which, in our authorized translation, is variously rendered habergeon, coat of mail, and brigandine. (1 Sam. xvii. 38. 2 Chron. xxvi. 14. Isa. lix. 17. Jer. xlvi. 4.) Between the joints of his harness (as it is termed in 1 Kings xxii. 34.), the profligate Ahab was mortally wounded by an arrow shot at a venture. From these various renderings of the original word, it should seem that this piece of armour covered both the back and breast, but principally the latter. The corslets were made of various materials: sometimes they were made of flax or cotton, woven very thick, or of a kind of woollen felt: others again were made of iron or brazen scales, or laminæ, laid one over another like the scales of a fish; others were properly what we call coats of mail; and others were composed of two pieces of iron or brass, which protected the back and breast. All these kinds of corslets are mentioned in the Scriptures. Goliath's coat of mail (1 Sam. xvii. 5.) was literally, a corslet of scales, that is, composed of numerous lamina of brass, crossing each other. It appears from various passages of Scripture, and espe- It was called by the Latin writers squamea lorica. Similar cially from Isa. ii. 4. and Mic. iv. 3., that there were mili-corslets were worn by the Persians and other nations. The tary schools, in which the Hebrew soldiers learned war, or, breast-plate worn by the unhappy Saul, when he perished in in modern language, were trained, by proper officers, in those battle, is supposed to have been of flax, or cotton, woven exercises which were in use among the other nations of anti- very close and thick. (2 Sam. i. 9. marginal rendering.) quity. Swiftness of foot was an accomplishment highly 3. The SHIELD defended the whole body during the battle. valued among the Hebrew warriors, both for attacking and It was of various forms, and made of wood or ozier, covered pursuing an enemy, as well as among the ancient Greeks with tough hides, or of brass, and sometimes was overlaid and Romans. In 2 Sam. i. 19. Saul is denominated the roe with gold. (1 Kings x. 16, 17. xiv. 26, 27.) Two sorts are (in our version rendered the beauty) of Israel; the force of mentioned in the Scriptures, viz. the (TsinNaн) great which expression will be felt, when it is recollected that in shield or buckler, and the (MaGEN) or smaller shield. It the East, to this day, the hind and roe, the hart and antelope, was much used by the Jews, Babylonians, Chaldæans, Ascontinue to be held in high estimation for the delicate ele-syrians, and Egyptians. David, who was a great warrior, gance of their form, or their graceful agility of action. In often mentions a shield and buckler, in his divine poems, to 2 Sam. ii. 18. we are told that Asahel was as light of foot as a signify that defence and protection of heaven which he exwild roe;-a mode of expression perfectly synonymous with pected and experienced, and in which he reposed all his trust. the epithet of das wxus Axus, the swift-footed Achilles, (Psal. v. 12.) And when he says, God will with favour which is given by Homer to his hero, not fewer than thirty compass the righteous as with a shield, he seems to allude to times in the course of the Iliad. David expressed his grati- the use of the great shield tsinnah (which is the word he uses) tude to God for making his feet like hind's feet for swiftness, with which they covered and defended their whole bodies. and teaching his hands to war, so that a bow of steel was King Solomon caused two different sorts of shields to be made, broken by his arms. (Psal. xviii. 33, 34.) The tribe of Ben- viz. the tsinnah (which answers to the clypeus of the Latins), jamin could boast of a great number of brave men, who such a large shield as the infantry wore, and the maginnim could use their right and left hands with equal dexterity or scuta, which were used by the horsemen, and were of a (Judg. xx. 16. 1Chron. xii. 2.), and who were eminent for much less size. (2 Chron. ix. 15, 16.) The former of these their skill in the use of the bow and the sling. The men of war, are translated targets, and are double in weight to the other. out of the tribe of Gad, who came to David when persecuted The Philistines came into the field with this weapon: so we by Saul, are described as being men of war, fit for the battle, find their formidable champion was appointed. (1 Sam. xvii. that could handle shield and buckler, whose faces were like the 7.) One bearing a shield went before him, whose proper faces of lions, and who were as swift as the roes upon the duty it was to carry this and some other weapons, with which mountains. (1 Chron. xii. 8.) to furnish his master upon occasion." VI. The Hebrews do not appear to have had any peculiar military habit: as the flowing dress which they ordinarily wore, would have impeded their movements, they girt it closely around them when preparing for battle, and loosened it on their return. (2 Sam. xx. 8. I Kings xx. 11.) They used the same arms as the neighbouring nations, both defensive and offensive, and these were made either of iron or of Morier's Second Journey into Persia, pp. 115, 116. ⚫ Captains Irby's and Mangle's Travels in Egypt, &c. p. 395. Dr. Della Cella's Narrative of an Expedition from Tripoli in Barbary to the Western Frontiers of Egypt, p. 11. Harmer's Observations, vol. iii. pp. 430, 431. • Livy, lib. iv. c. 59. Bruning's Antiquit. Græc. p. 102. The chevalier Folard is of opinion that the brazen shield, with which Goliath covered his shoulders, consisted only of brass plates fastened upon with gold plates, and deposited in the temple (1 Kings x. 16, 17.), and which, the wood; similar to the bucklers which Solomon afterwards enriched having been carried away by Shishak, king of Egypt, were replaced by Rehoboam, with other brazen shields. An additional reason for concluding Goliath's shield to have been composed of brass plates affixed to wood, is, that if it had been wholly composed of this metal, and had been of a size proportionable to his body, it is doubtful whether this giant, and still more whether his squire, would have been able to support its weight. |