5. It is impossible to avoid noticing, in reading the historical books of the Old Testament, the barbarities which were mutually practised, in the wars carried on between the Israelites and the adjoining nations. Some were decapitated (1 Sam. xxxi. 9), others had their noses and ears cut off (Ezek. xxiii. 25), or their hands and feet, 2 Sam. iv. 12. Some were put under saws and arrows of iron, and made to pass through the brick kiln (2 Sam. xii. 31); mothers were destroyed with their children (Est. iii. 13); infants were dashed against the stones (2 Ki. viii. 12; Ps. cxxxvii. 9; Is. xiii. 16— 18); women with child were ripped up (2 Ki. xv. 16; Hos. xiii. 16; Am.i. 13), and persons of rank reduced to the most degrading slavery, Is. xlvii. 2.

6. With regard to the spoil taken in war, Moses distinctly recognized the right of the people to it; and the following regulations may be collected out of his writings, relative to its distribution.-1. The spoil in persons and cattle did not belong to the individuals who took it, but was collected, reckoned, and distributed in the following proportions(1.) One half to those who went to the field, out of which they had to give every five hundredth individual to the priests, Numb. xxxii. 26-29. (2.) The other half went to the rest of the Israelites, with the deduction of every fiftieth individual for the Levites, ver. 30.-2. Things inanimate belonged to the individual who seized them, ver. 48-54. David enacted a wise and equitable law relative to the division of spoil in the army; giving equally to those who fought, and those who remained with the stuff, or baggage, 1 Sam. xxx. 24, 25. *

7. The arms of the Jewish warriors were adapted to the exigencies of the occasion. Some of them wore complete armour; consisting of a helmet of brass (1 Sam. xvii. 5), a habergeon cuirass or breastplate of brass, a defence for the back, a girdle for the loins, and greaves of brass for the legs and feet (1 Sam. xvii. 6), with a sword for the right hand, and a shield or buckler for the left. Hence the beautiful allusion to all these in St. Paul's description of the Christian soldier (Eph. vi. 13—17), where nothing is left undefended but the back; to teach us that Christ hates a coward, and an apostate; that as long as we undauntedly face the foe we are safe; but if we turn our backs we do it at our hazard. † But although some of the soldiers were thus equipped the greater part wore their ordinary clothing, and were arranged

* Michaelis on the Laws of Moses, vol. iii. pp. 37-53.

† See Macknight on Eph. vi. 17, and Brown's Antiquities of the Jews, vol. ii. p. 449.

in companies according to their armour. Thus one part had swords and bucklers; another spears and javelins; a third battle axes (Jer. li. 20); a fourth slings (Judg. xx. 16; 2 Ki. iii. 25); and a fifth bows, 1 Sa. xxxi. 3; 1 Chr. v. 18; xii. 2. There are several highly expressive and beautiful metaphors in the New Testament, which are derived from various parts of the Roman armour. See Rom. xiii. 12; 2 Cor. vi. 7, &c. 8. In so mountainous a country as Judea, cavalry could be of no great service, and therefore in the more early periods of their history the Hebrews did not adopt them. Absalom is the first of whom we read making use of them (2 Sam. xv. 1), and they appear to have been of no further service to him, than to facilitate his flight, ch. xviii. 9, &c. Solomon, indeed, sent to Egypt for a considerable number of horses, and a proportionable number of chariots (1 Ki. x. 26, &c), but it seems they were more for splendour than actual service; and hence Rabshakeh, when he marched against Jerusalem, taunted Hezekiah with the remark, that if he should lend him 2000 horses none of his subjects were capable of riding them, (2 Ki. xviii. 23.) And yet, that the Jewish monarchs sometimes employed chariots in their armies is evident from several passages in the books of Kings, Chronicles, &c. Those used by the Canaanites are called "chariots of iron" (Judg. i. 19), because their poles, wheels, and axles, were armed with sharp scythes.

His

9. The qualifications of a Hebrew warrior were so very different from those which are considered essential in modern times, that we are at a loss, without a knowledge of this circumstance, to understand the propriety of some of the commendations bestowed upon them in the Old Testament writings. The discipline of modern tactics was unknown in ancient times, when the meanest soldier had an opportunity of distinguishing himself by his strength and agility. bodily strength, if great, enabled him to bear down his opponent; and, when that was wanting, his dexterity in the use of arms, his pretended flight and sudden return, were all employed to deceive and defeat his adversary; whilst the closeness of the combat rendered the disarming, or death of his antagonist, the only mean of preserving himself. Bodily strength, therefore, complete presence of mind, experience in the art of war, and swiftness as a roe, when swiftness was necessary, either to pursue after or avoid the foe, were indispensable ingredients in an ancient warrior; whilst his eye acquired an animation, his countenance an expression, his voice a variety of cadence, and his whole frame a degree of athletic force, which are in vain sought for, in the mechanical

mass of a modern army. Nor should we forget that the valour of the Jews had often peculiar motives to strengthen it, viz. the motives of religion; for they frequently went to the field, under the immediate direction of Jehovah, and with the positive assurance of success.

*

It is well known, that for the purpose of keeping the military disembarrassed from the cares and distractions of secular life, the Romans prohibited marriage to their soldiery. To this the apostle refers, 2 Tim. ii. 4, "No one that warreth, entangleth himself with the affairs of this life; that he may please him who hath chosen him to be a soldier."

10. The return of the conquering army has ever been an occasion of the most enthusiastic rejoicing. The circumstances attending the return of Jephthah (Judg. xi. 34), the victory of David over Goliath, and the defeat of the Philistines (1 Sam. xviii. 6, 7), as also that of Judith over the Assyrians (Judith xvi. 1-17), are well known to every reader of the Bible. On a similar occasion was that beautiful lyrical composition, known as the Song of Moses, (Ex. xv.) also composed. But there are several beautiful allusions to the return of a triumphant army, in the writings of the New Testament, which must not here be passed over. The splendour and pomp of a Roman triumph were of the most magnificent description. After a decisive battle gained, and the complete conquest of a kingdom, the most illustrious captives in war-kings, princes, and nobles, with their wives and children, were, with the last dishonour and ignominy, led in fetters before the general's chariot, through the public streets of Rome, which were crowded by all classes of persons, in the highest excesses of joy. On these occasions, indeed, Rome was a scene of universal festivity: the temples were all thrown open, were adorned with garlands, and filled with clouds of incense and the richest perfumes: the spectators were clothed in white garments: hecatombs of victims were slain, and most sumptuous entertainments were given. The illustrious captives, after having been dragged through the city in this procession, and thus publicly exposed, were generally imprisoned, frequently strangled and dispatched in dungeons, or sold for slaves. § The first allusion to such a

*Brown's Antiq. vol. ii.

458.

A metrical translation of this Song may be seen in Critica Biblica, vol, i. pp. 319, 320.

For the remarks which follow we are indebted to Dr. Harwood.

§ A translation of Plutarch's minute description of the triumphal procession of Paulus Æmilius, who took Perseus king of Macedon prisoner, and put a final period to that ancient empire, may be seen in Kennett's Antiquities of Rome, p. 228, &c.

spectacle is in Col. ii. 15, where the Redeemer is represented as a great conqueror, who, after having totally vanquished and subjugated all the empires and kingdoms of false religion, and overturned the mighty establishments of Judaism and Paganism, supported by the great and powerful, celebrates a most magnificent TRIUMPH over them, leads them in procession, openly exposing them to the view of the whole world as the captives of his omnipotence, and the trophies of his gospel!" Having spoiled principalities and powers, he made a show of them openly, triumphing over them !” *— The second passage, whose beautiful and striking imagery is taken from a Roman triumph, occurs 2 Cor. ii. 14–26. "Now thanks be unto God, who always causeth us to triumph in Christ, and maketh manifest the savour of his knowledge by us in every place. For we are unto God a sweet savour of Christ, in them that are saved, and in them that perish: to the one we are a savour of death unto death; and to the other, of life unto life." In this passage God is represented, in very striking language and sentiment, as leading the apostles in triumph† through the world, shewing them every where as the monuments of his grace and mercy, and by their means diffusing in every place the odour of the knowledge of God-in reference to a triumph, when all the temples were filled with fragrance, and the whole air breathed perfume.And the apostle, continuing the allusion, adds, that this odour would prove the means of the salvation of some and destruction of others—as in a triumph, after the pomp and procession were concluded, some of the captives were put to death, others saved alive. †

Among the other military honours and recompenses, rich and splendid crowns,§ frequently of gold, were publicly bestowed on the illustrious conqueror, and upon every man, who,

*The original is, leading them in triumph.

†The original here, also, is leadeth us about in triumph. "The Greek word which we render causeth us to triumph, properly signifies to triumph over, or to lead in triumph, as our translators themselves have rightly rendered it in another place, Col. ii. 15. And so the apostle's true meaning is plainly this: Now thanks be to God, who always triumpheth over us in Christ; leading us about in triumph, as it were in solemn procession. This yields a most congruous and beautiful sense of his words. And in order to display the force of this fine sentiment, his full compass and extent, let it be observed, that when St. Paul represents himself and others as being led about in triumph, like so many captives, by the prevailing power and efficacy of gospel grace, and truth, his words naturally imply and suggest three things worthy of particular notice and attention, viz. a contest, a victory, and an open shew of this victory."- -"While God was leading about such men in triumph, he made them very serviceable and successful in promoting Christian knowledge in every place wherever they came." Breckell's Discourses, pp. 141, 142, 151.

Harwood's Introduction, vol. ii. pp. 29–34. § See Kennett's Rom. Antiq. p. 224, &c.

acting worthy the Roman name, had distinguished himself by his valour and his virtue. In allusion to this custom, how beautiful and striking are those many passages of Scripture which represent the Saviour before angels and the whole assembled world, acknowledging and applauding distinguished goodness, and publicly conferring crowns of immortal glory upon persevering and victorious holiness. See 2 Tim. iv. 8; Jam. i. 12; 1 Pet. v. 4; Rev. ii. 10.*

SECTION VII.

TRIBUTE AND TAXES.

I. Under Moses.-II. After the Captivity.-III. The Publicans.

I. As the law of Moses was the only body of law, enacted by God, the King of Israel, for the government both of church and state, and as the priests were appointed to dispense it, they are properly to be considered as ministers of state, as well as of religion; and therefore the tithes, and the portion of sacrifices, which the law assigned for their maintenance, were in the nature of taxes, payable for the support of the government. Besides these we read of no other stated taxes, appointed by the law, except a poll-tax of half a shekel, which, when they were numbered in the wilderness, was levied upon every man from twenty years old and upwards; and it is said to be designed for " a ransom, or atonement for his soul," and to be " appointed for the service of the tabernacle of the congregation," Ex. xxx. 12-16. This tax, however, appears only to have been resorted to as circumstances required, till the later periods of the Jewish History, when it became a stated annual payment,† and was demanded of our Saviour, Matt. xvii. 24.1

II. After the captivity, the Jews were tributary first to the Persians (Ez. iv. 13; vii. 24), and then to the Greeks; from which latter they were freed by the Maccabees, 1 Mac. x. 29, 30; xi. 35, 36, &c. When Pompey conquered Judea (about ante A.D. 60.) the Jews became tributary to the Romans; and in the reign of Augustus (A. D. 8.) Judea was * Harwood, vol. ii. p. 56, 57.

† Josephus, Jew. Wars, b. vii. c. 6.

That this was the tribute demanded of our Lord is evident, as Jennings remarks, from the reason alleged by him why he might have been excused from paying it (ver. 25, 26), and which would not hold good were it a tribute paid to the Roman Emperor, as Salmasius and others have thought.