with the other languages of Germany,-the result being a group, stock, or class, named German.

A similar classification of the British and Gaelic gave us a similar group-a group named Keltic.

A third led us to the Latin and the Greek tongues. That these are members of one and the same group is well known, though the exact measure of their relationship has yet to be taken. In all probability we shall never get more than an approximation. However, the current doctrine is, that the two branches are less alike than the Scandinavian and the Teutonic; more alike than the British and Erse. For the group at large an unexceptionable name is still wanted. The present writer generally calls it Classical; others name it Thracian; others Pelasgic. Each of these latter terms involves a very doubtful hypothesis.

But these three groups are members of a larger class. Neither are they the only members. Before we get the whole of the system to which the English belongs, we must turn our eyes eastwards, and consider three fresh groups-the Slavonic, the Lithuanic, and the Sanskrit. It is not requisite to consider them very fully. It is only necessary to know that, whether treated separately, or subordinated to some higher class, they are the complement to the groups just enumerated. In other words, the Sanskrit, the Lithuanic, the Slavonic, the Latin and Greek, the German and the Keltic, form one great class a class which is generally called Indo-European.

§ 100. The Slavonic.-The numerous dialects of the Slavonic are most conveniently arranged round the following languages:-(1) The Polish; (2) the Bohemian ; (3) the Servian; (4) the Russian; (5) the Bulgarian.

(1.) To the Polish belong the dialects of the kingdom of Poland itself, the Grand Duchy of Posen, and Gallicia. To the Polish, too, in all probability, belonged most of the dialects of that part of Germany which was

originally Slavonic, especially those of Pomerania, Altmark, and Lüneburg. This is an inference from such fragments of them as either now exist, or have existed within the period of authentic history. Such is the Kassub, or Kassubic, of the Slavonians of the Rugenwalde, the remnants of the original Pomeranians. Such was the language of the Slavonians of Lüneburg, of which we have a sample, a Paternoster of the last century, strangely compounded of Slavonic and German. Such, too, (unless we place it in a class by itself,) is the Serb of Lusatia, the representative of the old Slavonic of Saxony.

(2.) The Czek, or Tshek, is the language of Bohemia and Moravia. The Slovak of the northern part of Hungary is, perhaps, more Czek than aught else: though it is, by no means, certain that (like the Lusatian) it may not, without inconvenience, be placed in a group by itself.

(3.) Round the Servian of Servia we may group the several dialects of southern Hungary, Croatia, Carinthia, Carniola, Dalmatia, Bosnia, and Montenegro.

(4.) The Russian falls into the Little Russian of Buchovinia and the Ukraine; the White Russian of Smolensko; and the Russian of the empire in general.

(5.) The Bulgarian is spoken in Bulgaria and in parts of Wallachia, Moldavia, and Macedonia.

(6.) To these add the Old Slavonic of the earliest Slave literature. The exact dialect which this represents is uncertain. It is only certain that it belongs to the East rather than the West-being Servian, Russian, or Bulgarian, rather than either Polish or Bohemian.

§ 101. The Lithuanic.—Originally, the Lithuanic was the language of East Prussia. Originally, too, it was the chief language of Courland, as well as of the Governments of Wilna, and Grodno. At present it is limited to those parts of Prussia which lie nearest to Courland, and to Lithuania. In Lithuania it is found in certain districts

only. Its eastern boundary is (there or thereabouts) the river Salis in Livonia, where it is succeeded by the Fin, or Ugrian, of Estonia. In Courland and Livonia it is known as the Lett; in Prussia as the High, in Grodno and Vilna as the Low, Lithuanic.

§ 102. The Sanskrit.-One of the languages of the arrow-headed inscriptions, along with its congeners, the Zend, is closely allied to the ancient literary language of India, the Sanskrit; the nearest affinities of the Sanskrit being with the languages of Europe; especially the Lithuanic and the Old Slavonic.

§ 103. This gives us a class of considerable range and magnitude; a class which comprises the Irish Gaelic on the west, and the Sanskrit on the east; the Norwegian on the north, and the Greek on the south. The exact value of the different divisions is doubtful; nor is it, for the present, of any great importance. For the present, it is enough to know that all the languages contained in the class under notice are not only capable of illustrating each other, but often used to do so.

CHAPTER XX.

HISTORICAL AND LOGICAL ELEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.-LANGUAGES ANTERIOR TO, AND LANGUAGES SUBSEQUENT TO, THE ANGLO-SAXON. THE KELTIC ELEMENTS. THE LATIN OF THE FIRST PERIOD.-THE LEGIONARY.-THE LATIN OF THE SECOND. THE DANISH. THE ANGLO-NORMAN.-THE LATIN OF THE THIRD PERIOD. OF THE FOURTH.-GREEK.-MISCELLANEOUS ELEMENTS.

§ 104. THE elements out of which the language of England has been formed are

(a.) Elements referable to the original British popu

lation, and derived from times anterior to the Angle invasion.

(b.) Angle elements.

(c.) Elements other than Angle, introduced since the Anglo-Saxon conquest.

§ 105. Of the elements anterior to the Angle invasion, the chief are:

(a.) The Keltic, or British.

(b.) The Latin of the Roman, or first, period.

(c.) The Legionary (?).

The Keltic elements of the present English fall into the following classes.

1. Those that are of late introduction, and cannot be called original and constituent parts of the language. Some of such are the words flannel, from the Cambrian, and kerne (an Irish foot-soldier), galore (enough), tartan, plaid, &c., from the Gaelic branch. Some of these are scarcely incorporated.

2. Those that were originally common to both the Keltic and Gothic stocks. Some of such are brother, mother, in Keltic brathair, mathair; the numerals, &c.

3. Those that have come to us from the Keltic, but have come to us through the medium of another language. Some of such are druid and bard; the immediate source of which is, not the Keltic but, the Latin.

4. Keltic elements of the Anglo-Norman, introduced into England after the Conquest, and occurring in that language as remains of the original Keltic of Gaul.

5. Those that have been retained from the original Keltic of the island and which form genuine constituents of our language. These fall into five subdivisions.

(a.) Proper names—generally of geographical localities; as the Thames, Kent, &c.

(b.) Common names retained in the provincial dialects of England, but not retained in the current language;

as gwethall household stuff, and gwlanen flannel in Herefordshire.

(c.) Vulgarisms and slang expressions differing from the words of the preceding class by being used over the whole of England-game, as in game (crooked) leg—(see below kam)—bam (mystify), spree, tantrum.

(d.) Words used by the earlier, but not by the later writers.

Kam.-In Coriolanus we find This is clean kam ;kam meaning crooked, awry. In Lancashire to cam means to bend. The river Cam, though between Cambridge and Ely it is one of the straightest rivers in England, between Grantchester and Cambridge is one of the most winding. David Gam, the valiant Welshman. who saved Henry the Fifth's life at Agincourt, was, probably, Crooked David.

Kendel, as in a kendel of cats.—Welsh cenedl-family:

cenedlu kindle.

Imp.

to conceive: from which we have the verb

- Welsh ympiaw = engraft. Used in falconry for supplying a lost wing-feather.

Crowd, crowder fiddle, fiddler.—In Hudibras Crowdero is a proper name. In Venantius Fortunatus we find

the words crutta Britanna. Word for word this is cithara.*

Capull, in capul-hyde-horse-hide.-Welsh cefyll, Irish capul. Word for word, this is the Latin caballus.*

(e.) Common names current in the present languagebasket, balderdash, boggle, barrow, button, bother, bran, cart, clout, coat, dainty, darn, fag (as in fag-end), fleam (cattle lancet), flaw, funnel, gyve (fetter), grid (in grid-iron), gruel, gown, gusset, hopper (in a mill), kiln, mattock, mop, pelt, rail, rasher (of bacon), rug, solder (or

* These two words seem to have come through the Keltic rather than from it.